The molecular characterization and in situ expression pattern of pea SCARECROW gene

Challenges and Approaches to Crop Improvement Through C3-to-C4 Engineering

With a rapidly growing world population and dwindling natural resources, we are now facing the enormous challenge of increasing crop yields while simultaneously improving the efficiency of resource utilization. Introduction of C4 photosynthesis into C3 crops is widely accepted as a key strategy to meet this challenge because C4 plants are more efficient than C3 plants in photosynthesis and resource usage, particularly in hot climates, where the potential for productivity is high. Lending support to the feasibility of this C3-to-C4 engineering, evidence indicates that C4 photosynthesis has evolved from C3 photosynthesis in multiple lineages. Nevertheless, C3-to-C4 engineering is not an easy task, as several features essential to C4 photosynthesis must be introduced into C3 plants. One such feature is the spatial separation of the two phases of photosynthesis (CO₂ fixation and carbohydrate synthesis) into the mesophyll and bundle sheath cells, respectively. Another feature is the Kranz anatomy, characterized by a close association between the mesophyll and bundle sheath (BS) cells (1:1 ratio). These anatomical features, along with a C4-specific carbon fixation enzyme (PEPC), form a CO₂-concentration mechanism that ensures a high photosynthetic efficiency. Much effort has been taken in the past to introduce the C4 mechanism into C3 plants, but none of these attempts has met with success, which is in my opinion due to a lack of system-level understanding and manipulation of the C3 and C4 pathways. As a prerequisite for the C3-to-C4 engineering, I propose that not only the mechanisms that control the Kranz anatomy and cell-type-specific expression in C3 and C4 plants must be elucidated, but also a good understanding of the gene regulatory network underlying C3 and C4 photosynthesis must be achieved. In this review, I first describe the past and current efforts to increase photosynthetic efficiency in C3 plants and their limitations; I then discuss a systems approach to tackling down this challenge, some practical issues, and recent technical innovations that would help us to solve these problems.

SCARECROW, SCR-LIKE 23 and SHORT-ROOT control bundle sheath cell fate and function in Arabidopsis thaliana

Bundle sheath (BS) cells form a single cell layer surrounding the vascular tissue in leaves. In C3 plants, photosynthesis occurs in both the BS and mesophyll cells, but the BS cells are the major sites of photosynthesis in C4 plants, whereas the mesophyll cells are only involved in CO2 fixation. Because C4 plants are more efficient photosynthetically, introduction of the C4 mechanism into C3 plants is considered a key strategy to improve crop yield. One prerequisite for such C3-to-C4 engineering is the ability to manipulate the number and physiology of the BS cells, but the molecular basis of BS cell-fate specification remains unclear. Here we report that mutations in three GRAS family transcription factors, SHORT-ROOT (SHR), SCARECROW (SCR) and SCARECROW-LIKE 23 (SCL23), affect BS cell fate in Arabidopsis thaliana. SCR and SCL23 are expressed specifically in the BS cells and act redundantly in BS cell-fate specification, but their expression pattern and function diverge at later stages of leaf development. Using ChIP-chip experiments and sugar assays, we show that SCR is primarily involved in sugar transport whereas SCL23 functions in mineral transport. SHR is also essential for BS cell-fate specification, but it is expressed in the central vascular tissue. However, the SHR protein moves into the BS cells, where it directly regulates SCR and SCL23 expression. SHR, SCR and SCL23 homologs are present in many plant species, suggesting that this developmental pathway for BS cell-fate specification is likely to be evolutionarily conserved.

Identification of bundle sheath cell fate factors provides new tools for C3-to-C4 engineering

Spatial compartmentation of the photosynthetic process between bundle sheath (BS) cells and mesophyll cells is one of the features that increase the productivity of C4 plants. To introduce C photosynthesis into C3 plants therefore calls for the identification of factors that control BS cell fate and promoter sequences that confer gene expression specifically in the BS and mesophyll cells. We recently demonstrated that three GRAS family transcription factors, SHORT-ROOT (SHR), SCARECROW (SCR) and SCR-LIKE 23 (SCL 23), are required for BS cell fate specification in Arabidopsis thaliana. Homologs to these genes are present in other plant species, C3 and C4, suggesting a conserved mechanism for BS cell fate specification. Interestingly, initially SCR and SCL23 are expressed uniformly in BS cells, but at later stages of leaf development SCR expression becomes restricted to the BS cells associated with the phloem, whereas SCL23 is preferentially expressed in the BS cells abutting the xylem. Characterization of the functions and expression patterns of SHR, SCR and SCL23 homologs in other plants, especially C3 crops, will not only advance the knowledge about BS cell development but also provide new tools for manipulating the number and physiology of BS cells, a critical prerequisite for C3-to-C4 engineering.

Hybrid embryos of Vicia faba develop enhanced sink strength, which is established during early development

Selfed and crossed seeds of two homozygous Vicia faba lines served as models for the analysis of the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying embryo heterosis. Profiles of transcripts, metabolites and seed contents of developing embryos were analysed to compare the means of reciprocally crossed and selfed seeds growing on the same mother plants. The mean weight of mature hybrid seeds was demonstrably higher, revealing mid-parent heterosis. Hybrid embryos exhibited a prolonged early phase of development and delayed onset of storage activity. Accordingly, transcript profiling indicates stimulation of cell proliferation, an effect, which is potentially mediated by activation of auxin functions within a framework of growth-related transcription factors. At the transcript level, activated cell proliferation increased assimilate uptake activity and thereby seed sink strength. This situation might finally lead to the increased size of the hybrid seeds. We conclude that hybrid seeds are characterised by accelerated growth during early development, which increases storage capacity and leads to higher metabolic fluxes. These needs are, at least partially, met by increased assimilate uptake capacity. The stimulated growth of hybrid seeds shifted metabolite profiles and potentially depleted available pools. Such metabolic shifts are most likely secondary effects resulting from the higher storage capacity of hybrid seeds, a heterotic feature, which is itself established very early in seed development.

Molecular analysis of SCARECROW genes expressed in white lupin cluster roots

The Scarecrow (SCR) transcription factor plays a crucial role in root cell radial patterning and is required for maintenance of the quiescent centre and differentiation of the endodermis. In response to phosphorus (P) deficiency, white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) root surface area increases some 50-fold to 70-fold due to the development of cluster (proteoid) roots. Previously it was reported that SCR-like expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were expressed during early cluster root development. Here the cloning of two white lupin SCR genes, LaSCR1 and LaSCR2, is reported. The predicted amino acid sequences of both LaSCR gene products are highly similar to AtSCR and contain C-terminal conserved GRAS family domains. LaSCR1 and LaSCR2 transcript accumulation localized to the endodermis of both normal and cluster roots as shown by in situ hybridization and gene promoter::reporter staining. Transcript analysis as evaluated by quantitative real-time-PCR (qRT-PCR) and RNA gel hybridization indicated that the two LaSCR genes are expressed predominantly in roots. Expression of LaSCR genes was not directly responsive to the P status of the plant but was a function of cluster root development. Suppression of LaSCR1 in transformed roots of lupin and Medicago via RNAi (RNA interference) delivered through Agrobacterium rhizogenes resulted in decreased root numbers, reflecting the potential role of LaSCR1 in maintaining root growth in these species. The results suggest that the functional orthologues of AtSCR have been characterized.

Sucrose non-fermenting kinase 1 (SnRK1) coordinates metabolic and hormonal signals during pea cotyledon growth and differentiation

Seed development passes through developmental phases such as cell division, differentiation and maturation: each have specific metabolic demands. The ubiquitous sucrose non-fermenting-like kinase (SnRK1) coordinates and adjusts physiological and metabolic demands with growth. In protoplast assays sucrose deprivation and hormone supplementation, such as with auxin and abscisic acid (ABA), stimulate SnRK1-promoter activity. This indicates regulation by nutrients: hormonal crosstalk under conditions of nutrient demand and cell proliferation. SnRK1-repressed pea (Pisum sativum) embryos show lower cytokinin levels and deregulation of cotyledonary establishment and growth, together with downregulated gene expression related to cell proliferation, meristem maintenance and differentiation, leaf formation, and polarity. This suggests that at early stages of seed development SnRK1 regulates coordinated cotyledon emergence and growth via cytokinin-mediated auxin transport and/or distribution. Decreased ABA levels and reduced gene expression, involved in ABA-mediated seed maturation and response to sugars, indicate that SnRK1 is required for ABA synthesis and/or signal transduction at an early stage. Metabolic profiling of SnRK1-repressed embryos revealed lower levels of most organic and amino acids. In contrast, levels of sugars and glycolytic intermediates were higher or unchanged, indicating decreased carbon partitioning into subsequent pathways such as the tricarbonic acid cycle and amino acid biosynthesis. It is hypothesized that SnRK1 mediates the responses to sugar signals required for early cotyledon establishment and patterning. As a result, later maturation and storage activity are strongly impaired. Changes observed in SnRK1-repressed pea seeds provide a framework for how SnRK1 communicates nutrient and hormonal signals from auxins, cytokinins and ABA to control metabolism and development.

An evolutionarily conserved mechanism delimiting SHR movement defines a single layer of endodermis in plants

Intercellular protein movement plays a critical role in animal and plant development. SHORTROOT (SHR) is a moving transcription factor essential for endodermis specification in the Arabidopsis root. Unlike diffusible animal morphogens, which form a gradient across multiple cell layers, SHR movement is limited to essentially one cell layer. However, the molecular mechanism is unknown. We show that SCARECROW (SCR) blocks SHR movement by sequestering it into the nucleus through protein-protein interaction and a safeguard mechanism that relies on a SHR/SCR-dependent positive feedback loop for SCR transcription. Our studies with SHR and SCR homologs from rice suggest that this mechanism is evolutionarily conserved, providing a plausible explanation why nearly all plants have a single layer of endodermis.

Cloning of Pinus sylvestris SCARECROW gene and its expression pattern in the pine root system, mycorrhiza and NPA-treated short roots

The SCARECROW (SCR) gene is central to root radial patterning. Its expression has not been investigated in conifers with morphologically different root types. Additional interest in SCR functions in the Pinus sylvestris root system comes from the effect of ectomycorrhiza formation on the short root apical structure. Here, the P. sylvestris SCR gene (PsySCR) was cloned and its expression investigated by northern blot and in situ hybridization of primary, lateral and short roots and mycorrhiza. Short root dichotomization was induced by auxin transport inhibitor (N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA)). PsySCR has conserved GRAS family protein motifs at the C-terminus and a variable N-terminus. PsySCR expression occurred in young root tissue and mycorrhiza. In root sections the PsySCR signal runs through the tip in initials for stele and root cap column and becomes upwards-restricted to endodermis in all root types. The PsySCR expression pattern suggests for the first time a regulatory role for SCR in maintaining the endodermal characteristics and radial patterning of roots with open meristem organization. The specific PsySCR localization is also an excellent marker for investigation of the dichotomization process in short roots.

[Control of morphogenesis of woody plant by gravity on earth]

Using the weeping branch of Japanese flowering cherry tree and its woody stem of the seedling grown under simulated microgravity condition by three dimensional clinostat, it was elucidated that the morphogenesis of its secondary xylem supporting the plant itself to grow upward is seriously controlled by gravity on earth with a sedimentable amyloplast as its sensor. Space experiment of woody plant is expected to elucidate such problem.

Isolation and characterization of a novel GRAS gene that regulates meiosis-associated gene expression

GRAS protein is a family of plant-specific proteins that plays a role in various developmental processes. Here we report a novel GRAS protein from lily, designated LlSCL (Lilium longiflorum Scarecrow-like), dominantly expressed at the premeiotic phase within anthers. The LlSCL protein has two highly basic regions, and transient expression analyses of dissected GFP-LlSCL fusion proteins showed that both basic regions are important for the nuclear localization. A series of transcriptional activation experiments of truncated LlSCL proteins fused to the yeast GAL4 DNA-binding domain clearly demonstrated that the amino terminus of the LlSCL protein has a strong activity of transcriptional activation in the yeast as well as in the plant cell. Further investigation on the effect of the LlSCL protein on the transcriptional activity of the meiosis-associated promoter revealed that in pollen mother cells of the lily, the activity of the meiosis-associated promoter is specifically enhanced by LlSCL protein co-expression. These results suggest that LlSCL is involved in transcriptional regulation during microsporogenesis within the lily anther.

The catalytic subunit of protein kinase CK2 phosphorylates in vitro the movement protein of Tomato mosaic virus

The movement protein (MP) of Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) was reported previously by us to be phosphorylated in vitro by a cellular protein kinase(s) that exhibited several characteristics of casein kinase 2 (CK2). To characterize further this CK2-like cellular kinase, we have cloned cDNAs encoding the CK2 catalytic subunit from tobacco and compared the properties of the recombinant protein with those of the CK2-like cellular kinase. The recombinant CK2 catalytic subunit formed a complex with ToMV MP and phosphorylated it, similar to the CK2-like cellular kinase. Phosphoamino acid analyses of various mutant MPs altered near the C terminus revealed that the recombinant CK2 catalytic subunit phosphorylated serine-261, while the CK2-like cellular kinase phosphorylated both serine-261 and threonine-256. Both kinases were suggested to phosphorylate an additional serine residue(s) in regions other than the C-terminal peptide. The results are consistent with our previous prediction of involvement of CK2 in phosphorylation of ToMV MP.