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Spoel SH, Dong X. Salicylic acid in plant immunity and beyond. Plant Cell 2024; 36:1451-1464. [PMID: 38163634 PMCID: PMC11062473 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koad329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
As the most widely used herbal medicine in human history and a major defence hormone in plants against a broad spectrum of pathogens and abiotic stresses, salicylic acid (SA) has attracted major research interest. With applications of modern technologies over the past 30 years, studies of the effects of SA on plant growth, development, and defence have revealed many new research frontiers and continue to deliver surprises. In this review, we provide an update on recent advances in our understanding of SA metabolism, perception, and signal transduction mechanisms in plant immunity. An overarching theme emerges that SA executes its many functions through intricate regulation at multiple steps: SA biosynthesis is regulated both locally and systemically, while its perception occurs through multiple cellular targets, including metabolic enzymes, redox regulators, transcription cofactors, and, most recently, an RNA-binding protein. Moreover, SA orchestrates a complex series of post-translational modifications of downstream signaling components and promotes the formation of biomolecular condensates that function as cellular signalling hubs. SA also impacts wider cellular functions through crosstalk with other plant hormones. Looking into the future, we propose new areas for exploration of SA functions, which will undoubtedly uncover more surprises for many years to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven H Spoel
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Xinnian Dong
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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Zavaliev R, Dong X. NPR1, a key immune regulator for plant survival under biotic and abiotic stresses. Mol Cell 2024; 84:131-141. [PMID: 38103555 PMCID: PMC10929286 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2023.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1) was discovered in Arabidopsis as an activator of salicylic acid (SA)-mediated immune responses nearly 30 years ago. How NPR1 confers resistance against a variety of pathogens and stresses has been extensively studied; however, only in recent years have the underlying molecular mechanisms been uncovered, particularly NPR1's role in SA-mediated transcriptional reprogramming, stress protein homeostasis, and cell survival. Structural analyses ultimately defined NPR1 and its paralogs as SA receptors. The SA-bound NPR1 dimer induces transcription by bridging two TGA transcription factor dimers, forming an enhanceosome. Moreover, NPR1 orchestrates its multiple functions through the formation of distinct nuclear and cytoplasmic biomolecular condensates. Furthermore, NPR1 plays a central role in plant health by regulating the crosstalk between SA and other defense and growth hormones. In this review, we focus on these recent advances and discuss how NPR1 can be utilized to engineer resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul Zavaliev
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
| | - Xinnian Dong
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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Steensma P, Eisenhut M, Colinas M, Rosado-Souza L, Fernie AR, Weber APM, Fitzpatrick TB. PYRIDOX(AM)INE 5'-PHOSPHATE OXIDASE3 of Arabidopsis thaliana maintains carbon/nitrogen balance in distinct environmental conditions. Plant Physiol 2023; 193:1433-1455. [PMID: 37453131 PMCID: PMC10517258 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
The identification of factors that regulate C/N utilization in plants can make a substantial contribution to optimization of plant health. Here, we explored the contribution of pyridox(am)ine 5'-phosphate oxidase3 (PDX3), which regulates vitamin B6 homeostasis, in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Firstly, N fertilization regimes showed that ammonium application rescues the leaf morphological phenotype of pdx3 mutant lines but masks the metabolite perturbance resulting from impairment in utilizing soil nitrate as a source of N. Without fertilization, pdx3 lines suffered a C/N imbalance and accumulated nitrogenous compounds. Surprisingly, exploration of photorespiration as a source of endogenous N driving this metabolic imbalance, by incubation under high CO2, further exacerbated the pdx3 growth phenotype. Interestingly, the amino acid serine, critical for growth and N management, alleviated the growth phenotype of pdx3 plants under high CO2, likely due to the requirement of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate for the phosphorylated pathway of serine biosynthesis under this condition. Triggering of thermomorphogenesis by growth of plants at 28 °C (instead of 22 °C) did not appear to require PDX3 function, and we observed that the consequent drive toward C metabolism counters the C/N imbalance in pdx3. Further, pdx3 lines suffered a salicylic acid-induced defense response, probing of which unraveled that it is a protective strategy mediated by nonexpressor of pathogenesis related1 (NPR1) and improves fitness. Overall, the study demonstrates the importance of vitamin B6 homeostasis as managed by the salvage pathway enzyme PDX3 to growth in diverse environments with varying nutrient availability and insight into how plants reprogram their metabolism under such conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscille Steensma
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1211, Switzerland
| | - Marion Eisenhut
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Science, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Maite Colinas
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1211, Switzerland
| | - Laise Rosado-Souza
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Potsdam-Golm 14476, Germany
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Potsdam-Golm 14476, Germany
| | - Andreas P M Weber
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Science, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf 40225, Germany
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Luo W, Wang K, Luo J, Liu Y, Tong J, Qi M, Jiang Y, Wang Y, Ma Z, Feng J, Lei B, Yan H. Limonene anti-TMV activity and its mode of action. Pestic Biochem Physiol 2023; 194:105512. [PMID: 37532363 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
The main component of orange peel essential oil is limonene. Limonene is a natural active monoterpene with multiple functions, such as antibacterial, antiseptic and antitumor activity, and has important development value in agriculture. This study found that limonene exhibited excellent anti-tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) bioactivity, with results showing that its protection activity, inactivation activity, and curative activity at 800 μg/mL were 84.93%, 59.28%, and 58.89%, respectively-significantly higher than those of chito-oligosaccharides. A direct effect of limonene on TMV particles was not observed, but limonene triggered the hypersensitive response (HR) in tobacco. Further determination of the induction activity of limonene against TMV demonstrated that it displayed good induction activity at 800 μg/mL, with a value of 60.59%. The results of physiological and biochemical experiments showed that at different treatment days, 800 μg/mL limonene induced the enhancement of defense enzymes activity in tobacco, including of SOD, CAT, POD, and PAL, which respectively increased by 3.2, 4.67, 4.12, and 2.33 times compared with the control (POD and SOD activities reached highest on the seventh day, and PAL and CAT activities reached highest on the fifth day). Limonene also enhanced the relative expression levels of pathogenesis related (PR) genes, including NPR1, PR1, and PR5, which were upregulated 3.84-fold, 1.86-fold and 1.71-fold, respectively. Limonene induced the accumulation of salicylic acid (SA), and increased the relative expression levels of genes related to SA biosynthesis (PAL) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst (RBOHB), which respectively increased by 2.76 times and 4.23 times higher than the control. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is an important plant immune defense against pathogen infection. The observed accumulation of SA, the enhancement of defense enzymes activity and the high-level expression of defense-related genes suggested that limonene may induce resistance to TMV in tobacco by activating SAR mediated by the SA signaling pathway. Furthermore, the experimental results demonstrated that the expression level of the chlorophyll biosynthesis gene POR1 was increased 1.72-fold compared to the control in tobacco treated with 800 μg/mL limonene, indicating that limonene treatment may increase chlorophyll content in tobacco. The results of pot experiment showed that 800 μg/mL limonene induced plant resistance against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (33.33%), Phytophthora capsici (54.55%), Botrytis cinerea (50.00%). The bioassay results indicated that limonene provided broad-spectrum and long-lasting resistance to pathogen infection. Therefore, limonene has good development and utilization value, and is expected to be developed into a new botanical-derived anti-virus agent and plant immunity activator in addition to insecticides and fungicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Luo
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Kaiyue Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Jingyi Luo
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yingchen Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Jiawen Tong
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Mengting Qi
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yue Jiang
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Yong Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Zhiqing Ma
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Juntao Feng
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China
| | - Bin Lei
- Institute of Nuclear Technology and Biotechnology, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Fanning System in Desert Oasis Region, Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Urumqi 830091, China
| | - He Yan
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China; Provincial Center for Bio-Pesticide Engineering, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, China.
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Yildiz I, Gross M, Moser D, Petzsch P, Köhrer K, Zeier J. N-hydroxypipecolic acid induces systemic acquired resistance and transcriptional reprogramming via TGA transcription factors. Plant Cell Environ 2023; 46:1900-1920. [PMID: 36790086 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
N-hydroxypipecolic acid (NHP) accumulates in pathogen-inoculated and distant leaves of the Arabidopsis shoot and induces systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in dependence of the salicylic acid (SA) receptor NPR1. We report here that SAR triggered by exogenous NHP treatment requires the function of the transcription factors TGA2/5/6 in addition to NPR1, and is further positively affected by TGA1/4. Consistently, a tga2/5/6 triple knockout mutant is fully impaired in NHP-induced SAR gene expression, while a tga1/4 double mutant shows an attenuated, partial transcriptional response to NHP. Moreover, tga2/5/6 and tga1/4 exhibited fully and strongly impaired pathogen-triggered SAR, respectively, while SA-induced resistance was more moderately compromised in both lines. At the same time, tga2/5/6 was not and tga1/4 only partially impaired in the accumulation of NHP and SA at sites of bacterial attack. Strikingly, SAR gene expression in the systemic tissue induced by local bacterial inoculation or locally applied NHP fully required functional TGA2/5/6 and largely depended on TGA1/4 factors. The systemic accumulation of NHP and SA was attenuated but not abolished in the SAR-compromised and transcriptionally blocked tga mutants, suggesting their transport from inoculated to systemic tissue. Our results indicate the existence of a critical TGA- and NPR1-dependent transcriptional module that mediates the induction of SAR and systemic defence gene expression by NHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ipek Yildiz
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Ecophysiology of Plants, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marlene Gross
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Ecophysiology of Plants, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Denise Moser
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Ecophysiology of Plants, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Patrick Petzsch
- Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ), Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Karl Köhrer
- Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ), Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jürgen Zeier
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Ecophysiology of Plants, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Ramírez-Zavaleta CY, García-Barrera LJ, Rodríguez-Verástegui LL, Arrieta-Flores D, Gregorio-Jorge J. An Overview of PRR- and NLR-Mediated Immunities: Conserved Signaling Components across the Plant Kingdom That Communicate Both Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:12974. [PMID: 36361764 PMCID: PMC9654257 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232112974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-surface-localized pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and intracellular nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs) are plant immune proteins that trigger an orchestrated downstream signaling in response to molecules of microbial origin or host plant origin. Historically, PRRs have been associated with pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), whereas NLRs have been involved with effector-triggered immunity (ETI). However, recent studies reveal that such binary distinction is far from being applicable to the real world. Although the perception of plant pathogens and the final mounting response are achieved by different means, central hubs involved in signaling are shared between PTI and ETI, blurring the zig-zag model of plant immunity. In this review, we not only summarize our current understanding of PRR- and NLR-mediated immunities in plants, but also highlight those signaling components that are evolutionarily conserved across the plant kingdom. Altogether, we attempt to offer an overview of how plants mediate and integrate the induction of the defense responses that comprise PTI and ETI, emphasizing the need for more evolutionary molecular plant-microbe interactions (EvoMPMI) studies that will pave the way to a better understanding of the emergence of the core molecular machinery involved in the so-called evolutionary arms race between plants and microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candy Yuriria Ramírez-Zavaleta
- Programa Académico de Ingeniería en Biotecnología—Cuerpo Académico Procesos Biotecnológicos, Universidad Politécnica de Tlaxcala, Av. Universidad Politécnica 1, Tepeyanco 90180, Mexico
| | - Laura Jeannette García-Barrera
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Ecología Aplicada (INBIOTECA), Universidad Veracruzana, Av. de las Culturas, Veracruzanas No. 101, Xalapa 91090, Mexico
- Centro de Investigación en Biotecnología Aplicada, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carretera Estatal Santa Inés Tecuexcomac-Tepetitla Km.1.5, Santa Inés-Tecuexcomac-Tepetitla 90700, Mexico
| | | | - Daniela Arrieta-Flores
- Programa Académico de Ingeniería en Biotecnología—Cuerpo Académico Procesos Biotecnológicos, Universidad Politécnica de Tlaxcala, Av. Universidad Politécnica 1, Tepeyanco 90180, Mexico
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México 09310, Mexico
| | - Josefat Gregorio-Jorge
- Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología—Comisión Nacional del Agua, Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, Col. Crédito Constructor, Del. Benito Juárez, Ciudad de México 03940, Mexico
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Eccleston L, Brambilla A, Vlot AC. New molecules in plant defence against pathogens. Essays Biochem 2022:EBC20210076. [PMID: 35642866 DOI: 10.1042/EBC20210076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Plants host a multipart immune signalling network to ward off pathogens. Pathogen attack upon plant tissues can often lead to an amplified state of (induced) defence against subsequent infections in distal tissues; this is known as systemic acquired resistance (SAR). The interaction of plants with beneficial microbes of the rhizosphere microbiome can also lead to an induced resistance in above-ground plant tissues, known as induced systemic resistance. Second messengers such as calcium (Ca2+), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and nitric oxide (NO) are necessary for cell-to-cell signal propagation during SAR and show emergent roles in the mediation of other SAR metabolites. These include the lysine-derived signals pipecolic acid (Pip) and N-hydroxypipecolic acid (NHP), which are key signalling metabolites in SAR. Emerging evidence additionally pinpoints plant volatiles as modulators of defence signalling within and between plants. Plant volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as monoterpenes can promote SAR by functioning through ROS. Furthermore, plant-derived and additionally also microbial VOCs can target both salicylic acid and jasmonic acid signalling pathways in plants and modulate defence against pathogens. In this review, an overview of recent findings in induced defence signalling, with a particular focus on newer signalling molecules and how they integrate into these networks is discussed.
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Shields A, Shivnauth V, Castroverde CDM. Salicylic Acid and N-Hydroxypipecolic Acid at the Fulcrum of the Plant Immunity-Growth Equilibrium. Front Plant Sci 2022; 13:841688. [PMID: 35360332 PMCID: PMC8960316 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.841688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) and N-hydroxypipecolic acid (NHP) are two central plant immune signals involved in both resistance at local sites of pathogen infection (basal resistance) and at distal uninfected sites after primary infection (systemic acquired resistance). Major discoveries and advances have led to deeper understanding of their biosynthesis and signaling during plant defense responses. In addition to their well-defined roles in immunity, recent research is emerging on their direct mechanistic impacts on plant growth and development. In this review, we will first provide an overview of how SA and NHP regulate local and systemic immune responses in plants. We will emphasize how these two signals are mutually potentiated and are convergent on multiple aspects-from biosynthesis to homeostasis, and from signaling to gene expression and phenotypic responses. We will then highlight how SA and NHP are emerging to be crucial regulators of the growth-defense balance, showcasing recent multi-faceted studies on their metabolism, receptor signaling and direct growth/development-related host targets. Overall, this article reflects current advances and provides future outlooks on SA/NHP biology and their functional significance as central signals for plant immunity and growth. Because global climate change will increasingly influence plant health and resilience, it is paramount to fundamentally understand how these two tightly linked plant signals are at the nexus of the growth-defense balance.
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Saleem M, Fariduddin Q, Castroverde CDM. Salicylic acid: A key regulator of redox signalling and plant immunity. Plant Physiol Biochem 2021; 168:381-397. [PMID: 34715564 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In plants, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) formed during normal conditions are essential in regulating several processes, like stomatal physiology, pathogen immunity and developmental signaling. However, biotic and abiotic stresses can cause ROS over-accumulation leading to oxidative stress. Therefore, a suitable equilibrium is vital for redox homeostasis in plants, and there have been major advances in this research arena. Salicylic acid (SA) is known as a chief regulator of ROS; however, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unexplored. SA plays an important role in establishing the hypersensitive response (HR) and systemic acquired resistance (SAR). This is underpinned by a robust and complex network of SA with Non-Expressor of Pathogenesis Related protein-1 (NPR1), ROS, calcium ions (Ca2+), nitric oxide (NO) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the regulation of ROS and antioxidant defense system signalling by SA at the physiological and molecular levels. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of how SA controls redox homeostasis would provide a fundamental framework to develop approaches that will improve plant growth and fitness, in order to meet the increasing global demand for food and bioenergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Saleem
- Plant Physiology and Biochemistry Section, Department of Botany, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Qazi Fariduddin
- Plant Physiology and Biochemistry Section, Department of Botany, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India.
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