Conserved noncoding sequences and de novo Mutator insertion alleles are imprinted in maize

Heritable changes of epialleles near genes in maize can be triggered in the absence of CHH methylation

Trans-chromosomal interactions resulting in changes in DNA methylation during hybridization have been observed in several plant species. However, little is known about the causes or consequences of these interactions. Here, we compared DNA methylomes of F1 hybrids that are mutant for a small RNA biogenesis gene, Mop1 (Mediator of paramutation1), with that of their parents, wild-type siblings, and backcrossed progeny in maize (Zea mays). Our data show that hybridization triggers global changes in both trans-chromosomal methylation (TCM) and trans-chromosomal demethylation (TCdM), most of which involved changes in CHH methylation. In more than 60% of these TCM differentially methylated regions (DMRs) in which small RNAs are available, no significant changes in the quantity of small RNAs were observed. Methylation at the CHH TCM DMRs was largely lost in the mop1 mutant, although the effects of this mutant varied depending on the location of these DMRs. Interestingly, an increase in CHH at TCM DMRs was associated with enhanced expression of a subset of highly expressed genes and suppressed expression of a small number of lowly expressed genes. Examination of the methylation levels in backcrossed plants demonstrates that both TCM and TCdM can be maintained in the subsequent generation, but that TCdM is more stable than TCM. Surprisingly, although increased CHH methylation in most TCM DMRs in F1 plants required Mop1, initiation of a new epigenetic state of these DMRs did not require a functional copy of this gene, suggesting that initiation of these changes is independent of RNA-directed DNA methylation.

How transposable elements are recognized and epigenetically silenced in plants?

Plant genomes are littered with transposable elements (TEs). Because TEs are potentially highly mutagenic, host organisms have evolved a set of defense mechanisms to recognize and epigenetically silence them. Although the maintenance of TE silencing is well studied, our understanding of the initiation of TE silencing is limited, but it clearly involves small RNAs and DNA methylation. Once TEs are silent, the silent state can be maintained to subsequent generations. However, under some circumstances, such inheritance is unstable, leading to the escape of TEs to the silencing machinery, resulting in the transcriptional activation of TEs. Epigenetic control of TEs has been found to be closely linked to many other epigenetic phenomena, such as genomic imprinting, and is known to contribute to regulation of genes, especially those near TEs. Here we review and discuss the current models of TE silencing, its unstable inheritance after hybridization, and the effects of epigenetic regulation of TEs on genomic imprinting.

Heritable changes of epialleles in maize can be triggered in the absence of DNA methylation

Trans-chromosomal interactions resulting in changes in DNA methylation during hybridization have been observed in several plant species. However, very little is known about the causes or consequences of these interactions. Here, we compared DNA methylomes of F1 hybrids that are mutant for a small RNA biogenesis gene, Mop1 (mediator of paramutation1) with that of their parents, wild type siblings, and backcrossed progeny in maize. Our data show that hybridization triggers global changes in both trans-chromosomal methylation (TCM) and trans-chromosomal demethylation (TCdM), most of which involved changes in CHH methylation. In more than 60% of these TCM differentially methylated regions (DMRs) in which small RNAs are available, no significant changes in the quantity of small RNAs were observed. Methylation at the CHH TCM DMRs was largely lost in the mop1 mutant, although the effects of this mutant varied depending on the location of the CHH DMRs. Interestingly, an increase in CHH at TCM DMRs was associated with enhanced expression of a subset of highly expressed genes and suppressed expression of a small number of lowly expressed genes. Examination of the methylation levels in backcrossed plants demonstrates that TCM and TCdM can be maintained in the subsequent generation, but that TCdM is more stable than TCM. Surprisingly, although increased CHH methylation in F1 plants did require Mop1, initiation of the changes in the epigenetic state of TCM DMRs did not require a functional copy of this gene, suggesting that initiation of these changes is not dependent on RNA-directed DNA methylation.