Screening for preclinical parenchymal lung disease in rheumatoid arthritis

Incidence of and predictive factors for lung cancer in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: A retrospective long-term follow-up study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to determine the incidence and predictive factors of lung cancer in rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective follow-up study of patients who were diagnosed with RA at our institution between April 2001 and December 2022. Pulmonary complications were evaluated using high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) at RA diagnosis. Patients were followed until the diagnosis of lung cancer, diagnosis of other malignancies, death, loss to follow-up, or the end of the study.

RESULTS

Among 771 RA patients, 3.5% were diagnosed with combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema (CPFE), 4.9% with interstitial lung disease (ILD) alone, and 6.0% with emphysema alone. During follow-up (mean of 9.3 years), the crude incidence rates of lung cancer per 1000 patient-years were 2.9 in all patients, 47.8 in CPFE patients, 10.5 in ILD patients, 11.9 in emphysema patients, and 0.8 in patients without these complications. Only male patients showed a higher incidence of lung cancer compared with the general population. In multivariable Fine-Gray regression analysis, the presence of HRCT-proven CPFE, ILD, and emphysema, and smoking history were identified as predictive factors for lung cancer in RA patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Close monitoring of lung cancer is needed for RA patients with smoking history and pulmonary complications, especially CPFE.

Patient-Centric Approach for the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease in Older People

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to outline considerations for treating older adults with rheumatoid arthritis-associated interstitial lung disease (RA-ILD) as it relates to infection, comorbidities, cancer, and quality of life.

RECENT FINDINGS

The recent 2023 American College of Rheumatology/American College of Chest Physicians guideline conditionally recommended specific disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), antifibrotics, and short-term glucocorticoids to treat RA-ILD. Since RA-ILD often affects older adults, we contextualize these pharmacologic options related to infection, gastrointestinal (GI) effects, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and quality of life. Nearly all DMARDs and glucocorticoids are immunosuppressive and increase infection risk. Rituximab, mycophenolate, cyclophosphamide, and glucocorticoids may have particularly high infection risk. Many therapies recommended for treating RA-ILD have potential GI side effects. Antifibrotics have a high rate of nausea and diarrhea. Janus kinase inhibitors may increase risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease in older people. In older individuals, decisions must weigh the risks and benefits of drug options while considering clinical and social factors such as polypharmacy, adherence, cost, convenience, and social support. Management of RA-ILD in older individuals is complex and should consider risks and benefits, while optimizing quality and quantity of life through a shared decision-making process.

Airways Abnormalities in a Prospective Cohort of Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) affects roughly 1% of the population and commonly involves the lungs. Of lung involvement in RA, interstitial lung disease (ILD) is well known; however, airways disease in RA is relatively understudied.

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the baseline airways abnormalities in a prospective cohort of patients with RA based on pulmonary function testing (PFT) results, high-resolution CT (HRCT) scans, and computational imaging analysis and are there associations between these abnormalities and respiratory symptoms?

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

In this single-center study, 188 patients with RA without a clinical diagnosis of ILD underwent HRCT imaging and PFT. Radiologists assessed HRCT scans for airway abnormalities. Computational imaging via VIDA Vision software and in-house quantitative CT imaging analysis was applied to 147 HRCT scans to quantify airway abnormalities.

RESULTS

Airways obstruction (FEV1 to FVC ratio < 0.7) was present in 20.7% of patients and was associated with older age, male sex, and higher smoking rate. Radiologists identified airway abnormalities in 61% of patients: 55% had bronchial wall thickening, 12% had bronchiectasis, and 5% had mosaic attenuation. These airways findings were associated with older age; male sex; lower FEV1, FVC, and FEV1 to FVC ratio; and higher rates of rheumatoid factor positivity. Prespecified quantitative CT scan metrics (wall thickening percentage and emphysema percentage) correlated with obstruction in PFT results and more severe respiratory symptoms, including shortness of breath and cough.

INTERPRETATION

High rates of airways abnormalities were found in this prospective RA cohort based on three methods of detection. Significant associations were identified between quantitative CT scan measures and respiratory symptoms. Airways disease may be an underrecognized extra-articular manifestation of RA and quantitative CT imaging may be a sensitive method to detect the clinical impact on respiratory symptoms.

Detecting respiratory impairment in newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis by MRC dyspnoea scale and microfibrillar-associated protein 4

Objectives

To evaluate the Medical Research Council (MRC) dyspnoea scale and serum Microfibrillar-associated protein 4 (MFAP4) levels for the detection of respiratory impairment in newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Methods

Patients underwent blood tests, pulmonary function tests (PFT) and dyspnoea assessment using the MRC scale. Respiratory impairment was defined as a diffusion capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide (DLCO) <80% predicted or FEV1/FVC <70%. The primary outcomes were the MRC and MFAP4's sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

One hundred and thirty-one patients had available baseline tests. Mean age was 57.7 years (SD: 10.9), 61% were female, and 45% had respiratory impairment. For MRC score ≥ 2, the sensitivity was 39.0% (95% CI 26.5; 52.6), specificity 76.4% (95% CI 64.9; 85.6), and DOR 2.07 (95% CI 0.97; 4.40). For MFAP4 > 29.0 U/mL, the sensitivity was 62.7% (95% CI 49.1; 75.0), specificity 56.9% (95% CI 44.7; 68.6), and DOR 2.22 (95% CI 1.10; 4.50). The DOR was 3.01 (95% CI 1.27; 7.16) for MFAP4 detecting respiratory impairment when adjusted for age, sex and smoking status.

Conclusion

The MRC dyspnoea score and unadjusted MFAP4 levels were poor predictors of respiratory impairment in patients with early treatment-naïve rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis, quantitative parenchymal lung features and mortality among smokers

OBJECTIVES

There have been limited investigations of the prevalence and mortality impact of quantitative CT (QCT) parenchymal lung features in RA. We examined the cross-sectional prevalence and mortality associations of QCT features, comparing RA and non-RA participants.

METHODS

We identified participants with and without RA in COPDGene, a multicentre cohort study of current or former smokers. Using a k-nearest neighbour quantifier, high resolution CT chest scans were scored for percentage of normal lung, interstitial changes and emphysema. We examined associations between QCT features and RA using multivariable linear regression. After dichotomizing participants at the 75th percentile for each QCT feature among non-RA participants, we investigated mortality associations by RA/non-RA status and quartile 4 vs quartiles 1-3 of QCT features using Cox regression. We assessed for statistical interactions between RA and QCT features.

RESULTS

We identified 82 RA cases and 8820 non-RA comparators. In multivariable linear regression, RA was associated with higher percentage of interstitial changes (β = 1.7 [0.5], P = 0.0008) but not emphysema (β = 1.3 [1.7], P = 0.44). Participants with RA and >75th percentile of emphysema had significantly higher mortality than non-RA participants (hazard ratio [HR] 5.86; 95% CI: 3.75, 9.13) as well as RA participants (HR 5.56; 95% CI: 2.71, 11.38) with ≤75th percentile of emphysema. There were statistical interactions between RA and emphysema for mortality (multiplicative P = 0.014; attributable proportion 0.53; 95% CI: 0.30, 0.70).

CONCLUSION

Using machine learning-derived QCT data in a cohort of smokers, RA was associated with higher percentage of interstitial changes. The combination of RA and emphysema conferred >5-fold higher mortality.

Immune mechanisms in fibrotic interstitial lung disease

Fibrotic interstitial lung diseases (fILDs) have poor survival rates and lack effective therapies. Despite evidence for immune mechanisms in lung fibrosis, immunotherapies have been unsuccessful for major types of fILD. Here, we review immunological mechanisms in lung fibrosis that have the potential to impact clinical practice. We first examine innate immunity, which is broadly involved across fILD subtypes. We illustrate how innate immunity in fILD involves a complex interplay of multiple cell subpopulations and molecular pathways. We then review the growing evidence for adaptive immunity in lung fibrosis to provoke a re-examination of its role in clinical fILD. We close with future directions to address key knowledge gaps in fILD pathobiology: (1) longitudinal studies emphasizing early-stage clinical disease, (2) immune mechanisms of acute exacerbations, and (3) next-generation immunophenotyping integrating spatial, genetic, and single-cell approaches. Advances in these areas are essential for the future of precision medicine and immunotherapy in fILD.

Screening, diagnosis, and monitoring of interstitial lung disease in autoimmune rheumatic diseases: A narrative review

Interstitial lung disease (ILD) is a common and serious manifestation of autoimmune rheumatic diseases. While the prevalence of ILD differs among the individual autoimmune rheumatic diseases, ILD remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in systemic sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, mixed connective tissue disease, primary Sjögren's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and idiopathic inflammatory myositis. The present review summarizes recent literature on autoimmune-associated ILD with a focus on screening and monitoring for ILD progression. Reflecting on the currently available evidence, the authors propose a guideline for monitoring for progression in patients with newly diagnosed autoimmune-associated ILD. This review also highlights clinical and biological predictors of progressive pulmonary fibrosis and describes opportunity for further study in the rapidly evolving area of rheumatology and pulmonology.

Prevalence and clinical characteristics of patients with rheumatoid arthritis with interstitial lung disease using unstructured healthcare data and machine learning

OBJECTIVES

Real-world data regarding rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and its association with interstitial lung disease (ILD) is still scarce. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of RA and ILD in patients with RA (RAILD) in Spain, and to compare clinical characteristics of patients with RA with and without ILD using natural language processing (NLP) on electronic health records (EHR).

METHODS

Observational case-control, retrospective and multicentre study based on the secondary use of unstructured clinical data from patients with adult RA and RAILD from nine hospitals between 2014 and 2019. NLP was used to extract unstructured clinical information from EHR and standardise it into a SNOMED-CT terminology. Prevalence of RA and RAILD were calculated, and a descriptive analysis was performed. Characteristics between patients with RAILD and RA patients without ILD (RAnonILD) were compared.

RESULTS

From a source population of 3 176 165 patients and 64 241 683 EHRs, 13 958 patients with RA were identified. Of those, 5.1% patients additionally had ILD (RAILD). The overall age-adjusted prevalence of RA and RAILD were 0.53% and 0.02%, respectively. The most common ILD subtype was usual interstitial pneumonia (29.3%). When comparing RAILD versus RAnonILD patients, RAILD patients were older and had more comorbidities, notably concerning infections (33.6% vs 16.5%, p<0.001), malignancies (15.9% vs 8.5%, p<0.001) and cardiovascular disease (25.8% vs 13.9%, p<0.001) than RAnonILD. RAILD patients also had higher inflammatory burden reflected in more pharmacological prescriptions and higher inflammatory parameters and presented a higher in-hospital mortality with a higher risk of death (HR 2.32; 95% CI 1.59 to 2.81, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We found an estimated age-adjusted prevalence of RA and RAILD by analysing real-world data through NLP. RAILD patients were more vulnerable at the time of inclusion with higher comorbidity and inflammatory burden than RAnonILD, which correlated with higher mortality.

Abatacept in usual and in non-specific interstitial pneumonia associated with rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effectiveness of abatacept (ABA) in Rheumatoid Arthritis-associated Interstitial Lung Disease (RA-ILD) according to the radiological patterns of usual (UIP) or non-specific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP).

METHODS

From an observational longitudinal multicentre study of 263 RA-ILD patients treated with ABA, those with UIP or NSIP were selected. Lung function, chest high resolution computerised tomography (HRCT) and dyspnoea were recorded and compared in both groups from baseline to the end of follow-up (progression definitions: improvement or worsening >10% of FVC or DLCO, changes in HRCT extension and 1-point change in the mMRC scale, respectively). Differences between final and baseline visits were calculated as the average difference (95% CI) through mixed effects models regression.

RESULTS

We studied 190 patients with UIP (n=106) and NSIP (n=84). General features were similar in both groups except for older age, positive rheumatoid factor, and previous sulfasalazine therapy, which were more frequent in patients with UIP. ILD duration up to ABA initiation was relatively short: median 16 [4-50] and 11 [2-36] months (p=0.36) in UIP and NSIP, respectively. Mean baseline FVC and DLCO were 82% and 63% in UIP and 89% and 65% in NSIP, respectively. Both parameters remained stable during 24 months with ABA. HRCT lesions and dyspnoea improved/stabilized in 73.1% and 90.5% and 72.9% and 94.6% of UIP and NSIP patterns, respectively.

CONCLUSION

ABA seems equally effective in stabilizing dyspnoea, lung function and radiological impairment in both UIP and NSIP patterns of RA-ILD. Early administration of ABA may prevent RA-ILD progression, regardless of the radiological pattern.

Imaging Features of Autoimmune Disease-Related Interstitial Lung Diseases

Interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) associated with autoimmune diseases show characteristic signs of imaging. Radiologic signs are also used in the identification of ILDs with features suggestive of autoimmune disease that do not meet the criteria for a specific autoimmune disease. Radiologists play a key role in identifying these signs and assessing their relevance as part of multidisciplinary team discussions. A radiologist may be the first health care professional to pick up signs of autoimmune disease in a patient referred for assessment of ILD or with suspicion for ILD. Multidisciplinary team discussion of imaging findings observed during follow-up may inform a change in diagnosis or identify progression, with implications for a patient's treatment regimen. This article describes the imaging features of autoimmune disease-related ILDs and the role of radiologists in assessing their relevance.

Clinical and preclinical pulmonary disease in newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis: a two-year follow-up study

OBJECTIVE

Pulmonary disease is a major cause of excess mortality among patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Interstitial lung disease (ILD) is a feared complication, but the benefit of screening is unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the frequency of pulmonary disease, including ILD, in early RA.

METHOD

Patients with newly diagnosed RA were recruited prospectively at a single centre and underwent systematic pulmonary function tests (PFTs) and computed tomography (CT) scans at inclusion and after two years.

RESULTS

The study included 150 patients (mean age 57 years, 63% female; 59% current or former smokers). Of these, 136 underwent baseline PFTs and 137 CT. Mean forced expiratory volume in one second was 99% predicted and forced vital capacity 106%. Mean diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide (DLCO) was 84% predicted. Frequently detected CT abnormalities were pulmonary nodules (42%), bronchiectasis (29%), and emphysema (20%). Two patients had clinically significant ILD and six had mild reticulation suggestive of preclinical ILD. No ILD progression was identified at two-year follow-up. Smoking was associated with DLCO<80% (p=0.004), combined hyperinflation and diffusion impairment (residual volume>120% and DLCO<80%) (p=0.004), and visual emphysema on CT (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Emphysema and bronchiectasis were common, but most patients had mild disease with preserved lung function. Preclinical or clinical ILD was seen in a minority in this early phase of RA. These findings suggest symptom-based screening and primary intervention focusing on smoking cessation rather than screening for ILD at the time of RA diagnosis.

Prevalence and mortality associations of interstitial lung abnormalities in rheumatoid arthritis within a multicentre prospective cohort of smokers

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the prevalence and mortality impact of interstitial lung abnormalities (ILAs) in RA and non-RA comparators.

METHODS

We analysed associations between ILAs, RA, and mortality in COPDGene, a multicentre prospective cohort study of current and past smokers, excluding known interstitial lung disease (ILD) or bronchiectasis. All participants had research chest high-resolution CT (HRCT) reviewed by a sequential reading method to classify ILA as present, indeterminate or absent. RA cases were identified by self-report RA and DMARD use; non-RA comparators had neither an RA diagnosis nor used DMARDs. We examined the association and mortality risk of RA and ILA using multivariable logistic regression and Cox regression.

RESULTS

We identified 83 RA cases and 8725 non-RA comparators with HRCT performed for research purposes. ILA prevalence was 16.9% in RA cases and 5.0% in non-RA comparators. After adjusting for potential confounders, including genetics, current/past smoking and other lifestyle factors, ILAs were more common among those with RA compared with non-RA [odds ratio 4.76 (95% CI 2.54, 8.92)]. RA with ILAs or indeterminate for ILAs was associated with higher all-cause mortality compared with non-RA without ILAs [hazard ratio (HR) 3.16 (95% CI 2.11, 4.74)] and RA cases without ILA [HR 3.02 (95% CI 1.36, 6.75)].

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort of smokers, RA was associated with ILAs and this persisted after adjustment for current/past smoking and genetic/lifestyle risk factors. RA with ILAs in smokers had a 3-fold increased all-cause mortality, emphasizing the importance of further screening and treatment strategies for preclinical ILD in RA.

Progression of radiographic fibrosis in rheumatoid arthritis-associated interstitial lung disease

Background and objectives

Preclinical interstitial lung disease (pILD) may represent the early stages of rheumatoid arthritis-associated interstitial lung disease (RA-ILD). However, the characteristics, clinical outcomes, and risk factors associated with fibrosis progression in RA-ILD, including pILD and ILD, remain poorly understood.

Methods

Baseline data were compared between patients with RA-ILD and those with RA alone. Multivariate logistic regression and Cox regression analyses were performed to identify risk factors associated with the prevalence and imaging progression of RA-ILD, respectively.

Results

Among the 371 enrolled RA patients, 32.3% had RA-ILD. Multiple logistic regression analyses identified age over 60.0 years (OR 2.22), smoking (OR 2.09), diabetes mellitus (DM) (OR 3.09), mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD) (OR 2.98), serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels exceeding 250.0 U/L (OR 6.73), and positive anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibody (OR 2.06) as independent risk factors for RA-ILD (p< 0.05 or 0.01). Among the 98 RA-ILD patients who underwent follow-up for a median duration of 19.1 months, 51.0% demonstrated fibrotic progression on high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT). Multiple Cox regression analysis identified DM (HR 2.03), Disease Activity Score in 28 joints-Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (DAS28-ESR) greater than 5.1 (HR 2.21), and baseline HRCT scores exceeding 5.0 (HR 2.30) as independent risk factors for fibrosis progression in RA-ILD (p< 0.05 or 0.01).

Conclusion

Nearly one-third of RA patients in this cohort had prevalent pILD or ILD, and half of them demonstrated imaging progression during follow-up. DM, higher DAS28-ESR, and advanced HRCT scores were identified as independent risk factors for progressive fibrosis in RA-ILD.

Unmet needs and perspectives in rheumatoid arthritis-associated interstitial lung disease: A critical review

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease characterized by synovitis as the most common clinical manifestation, and interstitial lung disease (RA-ILD) represents one of the most common and potentially severe extra-articular features. Our current understanding of the mechanisms and predictors of RA-ILD is limited despite the demonstration that an early identification of progressive fibrosing forms is crucial to provide timely treatment with antifibrotic therapies. While high resolution computed tomography is the gold standard technique for the diagnosis and follow-up of RA-ILD, it has been hypothesized that serum biomarkers (including novel and rare autoantibodies), new imaging techniques such as ultrasound of the lung, or the application of innovative radiologic algorithms may help towards predicting and detecting early forms of diseases. Further, while new treatments are becoming available for idiopathic and connective tissue disease-associated forms of lung fibrosis, the treatment of RA-ILD remains anecdotal and largely unexplored. We are convinced that a better understanding of the mechanisms connecting RA with ILD in a subgroup of patients as well as the creation of adequate diagnostic pathways will be mandatory steps for a more effective management of this clinically challenging entity.

Impact of cigarette smoking on rheumatoid arthritis-associated lung diseases: a retrospective case control study on clinical and radiological features and prognosis

Our study aimed to investigate the clinical and radiological features and prognosis of male smoker patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We consecutively enrolled male inpatients with RA who received chest HRCT during hospitalization in Peking University Third Hospital from Jan 1st, 2012 to August 1st, 2021. 154 male patients with RA were eligible for analysis, of whom 76.6% (n = 118) were current smokers or had a history of cigarette smoking. Compared to never-smokers, smoker patients had more respiratory symptoms, including cough (31.4% vs 5.6%, p = 0.002) and sputum production (26.3% vs 2.8%, p = 0.002), and a higher positive rate of rheumatoid factor (RF) (77.6% vs 58.8%, p = 0.030). A higher percentage of smoker patients showed emphysema (45.8% vs 16.7%, p = 0.002) and signs of lung fibrosis (51/54, 94.4% vs 7/13, 53.8%, p < 0.001) in those with interstitial lung disease (ILD, n = 67) on chest HRCT. The overall survival rate was different between smoker and never-smoker patients (p = 0.031), but instead of cigarette smoking, lung fibrosis on HRCT was the risk factor for survival of our patients. In conclusion, male patients with RA who were current smokers or had a history of cigarette smoking presented more respiratory symptoms and a higher positive rate of RF. They also showed more emphysema and signs of lung fibrosis on chest HRCT. Cigarette smoking impacted on the overall survival as a confounding factor in this cohort of male patients with RA.