Rethinking care through social reproduction: articulating circuits of migration

Badante or Bride? Patterns of Female Migration in Italy, Japan, Korea, and Spain

This article investigates the intersection of care and migration regimes by comparing four carefully matched familialist countries—Italy, Japan, South Korea, and Spain. These four countries, while sharing a similar familialist culture and welfare regime, responded to the problem of eldercare deficits differently in the 1990s and the 2000s. Italy and Spain developed a ‘migrant-in-the-family model,’ relying heavily on informal eldercare provided by migrant workers whom Italians colloquially call badante. Korea and Japan, by contrast, relied more on marriage migrants, with Korea developing its own variant of the migrant-in-the-family model where the migrant is typically the daughter-in-law. In Japan, some marriage migrants became care workers in the formal eldercare sector. By tracing the historical trajectories of female migration to these four countries, the article identifies a recursive relationship between migration regimes and care regimes. Initial differences in migration regimes shaped the female migratory pathways in specific ways, which, in turn, affected the development of distinctive eldercare regimes. Once these new care regimes emerged, however, they influenced the migration regime in the next cycle. The article contributes to the literatures on the intersection of care and migration regimes by untangling the reciprocal feedback processes between these two systems.

O Cuidado além do Reparo

Resumo Importar-se com os outros e cuidar dos outros - sejam outras pessoas, coletividades, plantas, animais ou o clima - é um ato cotidiano e recorrente. Em algum momento da vida, quase todos os seres humanos precisam ser cuidados, são cuidados e, por fim, cuidam. Na antropologia, a noção crítica de cuidado constitui uma ferramenta analítica para considerar seriamente as contingências da vida e para compreender os modos como as pessoas atribuem sentido a diferentes tipos de atos, atitudes e valores. Este artigo argumenta que a dimensão normativa do conceito é parte de um binarismo cultural que hierarquiza o mundo de acordo com esferas da existência às quais são atribuídos valores distintos. Concentrando-se nesta normatividade como algo intrínseco à noção, o artigo estabelece uma distinção entre três campos empíricos complementares: o cuidado como reprodução social (globalizada), o cuidado como assimetria institucionalizada, e o cuidado para além do excepcionalismo humano. Fica claro que o cuidado oscila entre duas perspectivas distintas, produzindo uma tensão específica: por um lado, o conceito de cuidado apresenta uma dimensão protetora e conservadora ligada ao passado, por outro, incorpora uma dimensão transformativa por meio de suas noções de desenvolvimento, progresso e aprimoramento. Para ir além de nossa própria concepção (potencial ou inevitavelmente) acadêmica, eurocêntrica ou humanocêntrica da noção de cuidado, este ensaio sugere levar “o cuidado além do reparo”: podemos fazê-lo, em primeiro lugar, indagando qual é o papel da pesquisa nesta ética da diferenciação e, em seguida, identificando perspectivas e posicionalidades as quais, à primeira vista, parecem indistintas ou desarticuladas e, por isso, desafiam categorias já familiares de avaliação e distinção. Encarado desta maneira, o cuidado além do reparo nos chama a atenção para o fazer e o desfazer da existência humana.

Mother, wife, or worker: Life course and motivations of remarried Mainland Chinese immigrant women in Hong Kong

Studies on international marriage examining the motives in women’s marriage and migration decisions have indicated the limitations of the distinction between categories of migrants for marriage and migrant workers. Gender ideologies and immigration policies have accounted for women’s diverse motivations of transnational marriage; however, studies have focused on women in their first marriage, leaving those of remarried women, whose marital and migration decisions are often linked to the welfare and life trajectories of their children underexamined. Systematic investigations of institutional factors other than immigration policies in both receiving and sending countries, particularly post-Socialist societies, that affect their marital and migration decisions, remain limited. This article highlights the significance of life course, families, and gendered institutions in understanding the migratory flows of remarried immigrant wives. Based on in-depth interviews with remarried Mainland Chinese women in Hong Kong, the study argues that the effects of the labour market, local patriarchy, kinship system, and migration control mechanisms in post-Socialist China and Hong Kong on their remarital decisions vary depending on women’s life courses. Their decisions are embedded in their most salient family relationships, particularly young and adolescent biological children, which are interconnected within specific socio-historical contexts. The study contributes to research on gender and migration by demonstrating the heterogeneity of marriage migrants who are not merely wives or workers but also mothers of diverse life courses and the differential effects of gendered institutions on their remarital and migration decisions.

Les implications du dispositif d’immigration : pratiques de définitions et de redéfinitions publiques et privées des intimités binationales en France et en Belgique

Cadre de la recherche : En France et en Belgique, depuis 2000, des dispositions législatives ont renforcé les conditions pour conclure les unions entre un national et un ressortissant non européen et pour permettre à ce dernier d’accéder au séjour. Le dispositif d’immigration — délimitant un accès sélectif à la nation par la construction des formes acceptables de « faire famille » — travaille les intimités des couples.

Objectif : Cet article interroge les changements de l’intimité des couples binationaux à l’aune des rencontres avec le dispositif d’immigration.

Méthodologie : Le matériau empirique est issu d’une enquête multisituée conduite par collecte des récits de vie des conjoints d’une centaine des couples, analysés avec la « méthode d’évaluation biographique des politiques », et par observations participantes au sein des structures associatives dans des villes françaises et belges.

Résultats : Au fil des formalités administratives, l’intimité se fait publique pour ces partenaires obligés à performer les « amoureux » comme le dispositif d’immigration le souhaite. Cela implique un travail sur les frontières de leur intimité conjugale qui varie selon la perméabilité des individus à l’ingérence étatique. Diverses modalités de transformation de l’intimé, en adhésion ou en contraste avec la logique étatique, se profilent : « à deux vitesses », « résilientes », « en échange » et « en éclats ».

Conclusion : Ces intimités identifiées résultent des « pactes » à la source de l’union et du travail que les partenaires ont pu effectuer aux frontières des rencontres avec l’État. Dans une optique de « citoyenneté intime », ce travail articule des décisions privées et des pratiques publiques, ainsi que des dilemmes moraux.

Contribution : L’article interroge l’imbrication des frontières institutionnelles, travaillées par les politiques publiques, et conjugales, travaillées par les émotions, les attentes et les échanges, par une sociologie des pratiques performatives et intimes.

Tightening early childcare choices - gender and social class inequalities among Polish mothers in Germany and the UK

Care for young children continues to highly influence the life chances of men and women, even more so when they are migrants. For migrant women, childcare remains a particular challenge when their kin are absent and the gendered norms of work and family life abroad diverge from what they have known in the country of origin. This article contributes to a deeper understanding of social class and childcare strategies of migrant women by combining two research projects with migrants from Poland to Germany and the UK. Accounts represented in this article depict the ways in which migrant mothers interpret and use the available childcare options, thereby highlighting how class-based resources are deployed and reproduced in two different welfare regimes. The comparative approach pursued in the article reveals that it is neither class nor national context that has a capacity to determine early childcare choices on its own. Instead, it is an intricate interplay of social protections' availability, gender norms and social class, which together engender various childcare strategies.

Financial Crisis and Migrant Domestic Workers in Spain: Employment Opportunities and Conditions during the Great Recession

This article explores the impact of the Great Recession on migrant domestic workers in Spain. We argue that the domestic service sector’s relative resistance to job destruction has transformed it to some extent into a refuge activity for unemployed women from other sectors, both migrants and native Spanish workers. This leads to intensified competition over jobs and increasing stratification among domestic workers, with serious consequences both for migrant women’s opportunities to make a living in Spain and for their migration projects at an international level. Based on 90 in-depth interviews with female migrant domestic workers and stakeholders, we find that this group of workers has been seriously affected by unemployment, underemployment, and worsened job conditions. As a consequence, new and already settled migrants find the chances to gain their livelihood in Spain substantially reduced, and many of those who migrated in order to support the family back home through remittances, or to save some money and eventually return, are at present unable to do so.

Towards a model of resilience for transnational families of Filipina domestic workers

Many Filipinos experience poverty and poor employment opportunities. In order to alleviate poverty and provide sufficient resources for their families, numerous mothers leave the Philippines to become domestic workers. The present study aimed to build a model of family resilience for transnational families. A total of 33 participants consisting of Filipino transnational families, domestic workers, and key informants participated in a series of focus group discussions and interviews. A new model of resilience among transnational families of Filipina domestic helpers was created using a constructivist grounded theory approach. The model highlighted how temporal and spatial elements are embedded in collective migration experiences. Family narratives begin with the sacrifice of separation, where mothers leave their families for a chance to solve economic problems. To successfully adapt to their separation, the families undergo five relational processes. First, families communicate across space using technology to bridge relational distance. Second, families restructure across space through role sharing and the validation of each other’s efforts in their family roles. Third, families rebuild ties through temporary family reunification that bridge physical and relational distance. Fourth, families have the collective goal of permanent family reunification by ending migration to become complete again. Fifth, they strive to commit to their families by prioritizing them instead of succumbing to difficulties. Family resilience for transnational migrants is a collectivistic process, negotiated by each family member.

Perspectivas sobre género, migraciones transnacionales y trabajo: rearticulaciones del trabajo de reproducción social y de cuidados en la Europa del Sur

El presente trabajo trata de dar cuenta del “estado del arte” y de algunas de las principales cuestiones a debate en relación con la temática de las migraciones trasnacionales y el trabajo reproductivo en el sur de Europa. Se comienza realizando una genealogía del complejo desarrollo teórico que conduce a la consolidación del programa de investigación que vincula la consideración del género con las migraciones transnacionales y las transformaciones del trabajo y de las formas de supervivencia, tanto por lo que hace a los aspectos productivos como reproductivos, en un contexto de globalización. Se presenta el análisis del proceso de reconfiguración multiescalar de la reproducción social y los cuidados, con especial atención a su dimensión global actual, apuntando a que el turning point de esta línea de investigación habría tenido lugar con el inicio de este siglo, con el surgimiento de nociones como las de “cadenas globales de cuidados” (Hochschild, 2001), o “fuga de cuidados” (Ehrenreich y Hochschild, 2013). Asimismo, se reconoce el protagonismo de esta nueva agencia, compuesta ahora en muchos casos por mujeres, que migran a otros países o continentes, precisamente para ocuparse de estas actividades reproductivas. Por último, se alude a algunos de los nuevos desarrollos conceptuales y teóricos en esta materia.