Guidelines governing conflict of interest

A review of conflict of interest, competing interest, and bias for toxicologists

One of the issues often associated with scientific misconduct is conflict of interest. Although there is a lack of uniformity in the definition of conflict of interest, many express concerns that competing interests may bias research methods and the interpretation of data and conclusions. In extreme cases, conflict of interest activity could contribute to scientific misconduct, hinder the training of scientists, delay the dissemination of research results, lead to the harming of human health and the environment, and misdirect society's decisions that rely on science. This article is not a commentary or editorial but an attempt to supply an overview of what has been said, researched, and accomplished in the area of conflict of interest for toxicologists. Discussion of the financial, professional, and philosophical concerns associated with conflict of interest will be followed by brief discussion of general management approaches and the roles of scientists and organizations from all sectors (i.e., academia, industry, non-profit organizations, and government).

The occupational toxicologist: professionalism, morality and ethical standards in the context of legal and non-litigation issues

By its very nature, practice and intended applications, the profession of occupational toxicology has individual and collective responsibilities related to the design, conduct, interpretation and extrapolation of laboratory and controlled human clinical studies in order to determine the potential for industrial xenobiotics to produce adverse effects. The implications for health-related adverse effects in the workplace, and in the domestic and general environment carries many and various responsibilities for the toxicologist which are related to multiple and wide-ranging ethical issues. This review presents and discusses some of the major areas where the occupational toxicologist may experience potential ethical problems related to the conduct of routine professional activities. Emphasis is placed on the design, conduct, interpretation and reporting of laboratory studies; animal welfare; regulatory activities; human clinical volunteer studies; roles and responsibilities in defining workplace safety and protective measures; malpractices in various disciplines and work practices; misconduct in publication; and codes of ethical behavior.

Fraud, errors and gamesmanship in experimental toxicology

We expect moral behaviour from scientists. Morality implies being a good person and being good at one's profession. The general view appears to be that the vast majority of scientists aim to achieve these high standards. Science prides itself on the 'self-correcting' mechanism in the scientific method, namely the requirement to reproduce findings before they are taken seriously. However, when findings are related to the adverse effects of chemicals there are several features that make this less effective than in some other fields of science. First, is the perception that everyone is exposed to chemicals and observations about chemical danger are immediately applicable to many people. Second, it is often easy to summarize adverse findings in attention-getting headlines seen by the lay public before the slow process of replication and interpretation has time to work. Third, most regulatory toxicology studies on a particular compound are only done once to minimise cost and the use of animals. Finally, the question posed about chemicals--are they safe?--is easy to ask but more difficult to test with appropriate studies. Fabrication of data in regulatory studies was found to occur in several contract laboratories in the 1960s and this lead directly to the introduction of Good Laboratory Practice regulations. Now studies submitted for regulatory purposes must comply with GLP regulations and this has virtually eliminated flawed studies due to fraudulent or careless behaviour. It is possible to discern different ways in which the expected standards have not been met. The first is in the intention of the work. Thus reports that the Roodeplaats Research Laboratory in South Africa was seeking to identify toxins that would kill without trace is an example where the intention is unacceptable. The second is in the conduct of the studies. Here the examples of William McBride and Michael Briggs who falsified data are pertinent. The example of the retraction of reports on the toxicity of ecstasy because the wrong compound had been administered indicates a degree of carelessness in the conduct of the study. The third is in the design and interpretation of studies. The report that genetic modification per se could render potatoes toxic has been criticised because of the inappropriate design and interpretation of the studies. Finally, that the reports of studies are biased because of conflicts of interest. Journals often require a declaration that the author has no financial conflict of interest. However, there are many other conflicts of interest with just as large an impact on the author's impartiality which are omitted from consideration. Gamesmanship has also entered the practice of toxicology, for example where strong assertions about conflict of interest are used to justify particular points of view. The main casualty from fraud, errors and gamesmanship is the perceived status of science itself. It is only gamesmanship that is on the increase. The remedies for these activities are explored.