Characterization of Quinone Outside Inhibitor Fungicide Resistance in Cercospora sojina and Development of Diagnostic Tools for its Identification

Leveraging Natural Product-Inspired Antifungals to Investigate the Mechanism of Action of Peniciaculin A

Ubiquinone mimics known as quinone outside inhibitors (QoIs) are one of the most prominent fungicides used to protect crops in the agricultural industry. Due to chemotype similarities with known QoIs, peniciaculin A, a triaryl natural product, was proposed to exhibit similar broad spectrum antifungal activity against phytopathogens. Instability of the tertiary alcohol and phenol motif, however, prompted exploration of the antifungal properties of simplified analogues to probe possible overlap in mechanism of action between the natural product and QoIs. Peniciaculin A inspired analogues mimicking known QoI scaffolds displayed broad spectrum antifungal activity while those containing scaffolds dissimilar to QoIs possessed negligible bioactivity. These activity profiles suggest peniciaculin A is likely acting as a QoI.

Characterization of QoI-Fungicide Resistance in Cercospora Isolates Associated with Cercospora Leaf Blight of Soybean from the Southern United States

Cercospora leaf blight (CLB) of soybean, caused by Cercospora cf. flagellaris, C. kikuchii, and C. cf. sigesbeckiae, is an economically important disease in the southern United States. Cultivar resistance to CLB is inconsistent; therefore, fungicides in the quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) class have been relied on to manage the disease. Approximately 620 isolates from plants exhibiting CLB were collected between 2018 and 2021 from 19 locations in eight southern states. A novel polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) assay based on two genes, calmodulin and histone h3, was developed to differentiate between the dominant species of Cercospora, C. cf. flagellaris, and C. cf. sigesbeckiae. A multilocus phylogenetic analysis of actin, calmodulin, histone h3, ITS rDNA, and transcription elongation factor 1-α was used to confirm PCR-RFLP results and identify remaining isolates. Approximately 80% of the isolates collected were identified as C. cf. flagellaris, while 15% classified as C. cf. sigesbeckiae, 2% as C. kikuchii, and 3% as previously unreported Cercospora species associated with CLB in the United States. PCR-RFLP of cytochrome b (cytb) identified QoI-resistance conferred by the G143A substitution. Approximately 64 to 83% of isolates were determined to be QoI-resistant, and all contained the G143A substitution. Results of discriminatory dose assays using azoxystrobin (1 ppm) were 100% consistent with PCR-RFLP results. To our knowledge, this constitutes the first report of QoI resistance in CLB pathogen populations from Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee, and Texas. In areas where high frequencies of resistance have been identified, QoI fungicides should be avoided, and fungicide products with alternative modes-of-action should be utilized in the absence of CLB-resistant soybean cultivars.

Meta-Analytic Modeling of the Severity-Yield Relationships in Soybean Frogeye Leaf Spot Epidemics

Frogeye leaf spot (FLS), caused by Cercospora sojina, is an important foliar disease affecting soybean in the United States. A meta-analytic approach including 39 fungicide trials conducted from 2012 to 2021 across eight states (Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee) was used to assess the relationship between FLS severity and soybean yield. Correlation and regression analyses were performed separately to determine Fisher's transformation of correlation coefficients (Zr), intercept (β0) and slope (β1). Disease pressure (low severity, ≤34.5; high severity, >34.5%) and yield class (low, ≤3,352; high, >3,352 kg/ha) were included as categorical moderators. Pearson's [Formula: see text], obtained from back-transforming the [Formula: see text]r estimated by an overall random-effects model, showed a significant negative linear relationship between FLS severity and yield ([Formula: see text] = -0.60). The [Formula: see text]r was affected by disease pressure (P = 0.0003) but not by yield class (P = 0.8141). A random-coefficient model estimated a slope of -19 kg/ha for each percent severity for a mean attainable yield of 3,719.9 kg/ha. Based on the overall mean (95% CI) of the intercept and slope estimated by the random-coefficients model, the estimated overall relative damage coefficient was 0.51% (0.36 to 0.69), indicating that a percent increase in FLS severity reduced yield by 0.51%. The best model included yield class as a covariate, and population-average intercepts differed significantly between low (3,455.1 kg/ha) and high (3,842.7 kg/ha) yield classes. This highlights the potential impact of FLS on soybean yield if not managed and may help in disease management decisions.

Determining the Distribution of QoI Fungicide-Resistant Cercospora sojina on Soybean from Indiana

Frogeye leaf spot (FLS) is a foliar disease of soybean (Glycine max) caused by Cercospora sojina. Application of fungicide products that contain quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) active ingredients has been one of the major tools used in the management of this disease, but, since 2010, QoI-resistant C. sojina isolates have been confirmed in over 20 states in the United States, including Indiana. In summer 2019 and 2020, 406 isolates of C. sojina were collected from 32 counties across Indiana and screened for QoI resistance using a PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method. An in vitro fungicide sensitivity test was also performed on a subset of isolates to evaluate their sensitivity to three QoI fungicides: azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, and picoxystrobin. A discriminatory dose of picoxystrobin was established as 1 µg/ml by testing five concentrations (0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 µg/ml). QoI-resistant isolates were found in 29 counties, and 251 of the 406 isolates (61.8%) were confirmed to be resistant to QoI fungicides based on PCR-RFLP results. Partial nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene from four resistant and four sensitive isolates corroborated the presence and absence, respectively, of the G143A mutation. Results from the sensitivity assays with discriminatory doses of azoxystrobin (1 µg/ml) and pyraclostrobin (0.1 µg/ml) also supported the findings from the PCR-RFLP assay, because all QoI-resistant isolates were inhibited less than 50% relative to a no-fungicide control when exposed to these doses. Resistant isolates harboring the G143A mutation also exhibited resistance to picoxystrobin. The effective concentrations to inhibit mycelial growth by 50% relative to the nonamended control (EC₅₀) in QoI-sensitive isolates ranged from 0.087 to 0.243 µg/ml, with an overall mean of 0.152 µg/ml, while EC₅₀ values in QoI-resistant isolates were established as >10 µg/ml for picoxystrobin. Results from this study indicated that QoI-resistant C. sojina isolates are spread throughout Indiana and exhibit cross-resistance to QoI fungicides.

Identification of Septoria glycines Isolates from Soybean with Resistance to Quinone Outside Inhibitor Fungicides

Brown spot, caused by Septoria glycines, is a common foliar disease of soybean (Glycine max). Applications of fungicide products that contain quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) active ingredients to soybean fields have contributed to the selection and development of QoI-resistant populations of S. glycines. We investigated the molecular mechanisms of QoI-resistance in these populations through targeted analysis of the cytochrome b gene. Isolates of S. glycines collected from several soybean fields over different seasons varied in sensitivity to QoI fungicides. Characterization of the cytochrome b gene revealed a mutation that changed an amino acid from glycine to alanine at codon 143 - one that is generally associated with QoI fungicide resistances. A PCR assay was developed that allowed successful discrimination of QoI-sensitive and -resistant isolates based on the G143A mutation. Results of this study demonstrated that 47.5% of S. glycines isolates tested were resistant to QoI fungicides. Accurate monitoring of this mutation will help slow the spread of QoI resistance and will be important for fungicide resistant management in this pathosystem.

Molecular Identification of Mutations Conferring Resistance to Azoxystrobin in Cercospora nicotianae

Cercospora nicotianae, the causal agent of frogeye leaf spot (FLS) of tobacco, has been exposed to quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) fungicides for more than a decade through azoxystrobin applications targeting other major foliar diseases. From 2016 to 2018, a total of 124 isolates were collected from tobacco fields throughout Kentucky. Sensitivity of these isolates to azoxystrobin was previously characterized by determining the effective concentration to inhibit 50% conidial germination (EC₅₀). Based on azoxystrobin EC₅₀, isolates were categorized into three discrete groups: high sensitivity (<0.08 µg/ml), moderate sensitivity (0.14 to 0.64 µg/ml), and low sensitivity (>1.18 µg/ml). Variability in sensitivity in a limited number of C. nicotianae isolates was previously shown to be a result of resistance mutations in the fungicide target gene. To improve understanding of C. nicotianae cytochrome b (cytb) structure, the gene was cloned from three isolates representing each EC₅₀ group, and sequences were compared. Our analysis showed that cytb gene in C. nicotianae consists of 1,161 nucleotides encoding 386 amino acids. The cytb sequence among the cloned isolates was identical with the exception of the F129L and G143A point mutations. To more rapidly determine the resistance status of C. nicotianae isolates to azoxystrobin, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed to screen for mutations. According to this assay, 80% (n = 99) of tested C. nicotianae isolates carried an F129L mutation and were moderately resistant to azoxystrobin, and 7% (n = 9) carried the G143A mutation and were highly resistant. A receiver operating characteristic curve analysis suggested the PCR assay was a robust diagnostic tool to identify C. nicotianae isolates with different sensitivity to azoxystrobin in Kentucky tobacco production. The prevalence of both the F129L and G143A mutations in C. nicotianae from Kentucky differs from that of other pathosystems where resistance to QoI fungicides has been identified, in which the majority of sampled isolates of the pathogen species have a broadly occurring cytb mutation.

Meta-Analysis of Soybean Yield Response to Foliar Fungicides Evaluated from 2005 to 2018 in the United States and Canada

Random-effect meta-analyses were performed on data from 240 field trials conducted between 2005 and 2018 across nine U.S. states and Ontario, Canada, to quantify the yield response of soybean after application of foliar fungicides at beginning pod (R3) stage. Meta-analysis showed that the overall mean yield response when fungicide was used compared with not applying a fungicide was 2.7% (110 kg/ha). Moderator variables were also investigated and included fungicide group, growing season, planting date, and base yield, which all significantly influenced the yield response. There was also evidence that precipitation from the time of planting to the R3 growth stage influenced yield when fungicide was used (P = 0.059). Fungicides containing a premix of active ingredients from multiple groups (either two or three ingredients) increased the yield by 3.0% over not applying a fungicide. The highest and lowest yield responses were observed in 2005 and 2007, respectively. Better yield response to fungicides (a 3.0% increase) occurred when soybean crops were planted not later than 21 May and when total precipitation between planting and the R3 application date was above historic averages. Temperatures during the season did not influence the yield response. Yield response to fungicide was higher (a 4.7% increase) in average yield category (no spray control yield 2,878 to 3,758 kg/ha) and then gradually decreased with increasing base yield. Partial economic analyses indicated that use of foliar fungicides is less likely to be profitable when foliar diseases are absent or at low levels.

Effects of Soybean Cultivar, Foliar Application of Azoxystrobin, and Year on Seed Vigor and Microflora Under Delayed Harvest Conditions

The effects of cultivar and foliar fungicide applications on soybean seed germination, vigor, microflora, and yield after delayed harvest were determined at the University of Arkansas Vegetable Research Station in Kibler, AR, from 2008 to 2010. Seven cultivars with varying levels of resistance to Diaporthe spp. or Cercospora spp. were treated or not treated with a foliar application of azoxystrobin at the R5 growth stage. Plots were harvested 3 weeks after the plants had reached harvest maturity. Yields were recorded, samples of seed were collected, and standard germination (SG) and accelerated aging (AA) were assessed. Seeds were also assayed for infection by fungi on modified potato dextrose agar and by bacteria on nutrient agar. Seed vigor was significantly reduced by infection with Diaporthe spp., Fusarium spp., and Bacillus subtilis, but not with Cercospora spp. Cultivar had a significant impact on yield, seed vigor, and seed infection levels. The cultivar Osage had consistently high seed vigor and low overall seed infection incidence throughout the study. MO/PSD-0259, AG 4403, and UA 4805 also had relatively high seed vigor and low seed infection rates. PI 80837 had a low incidence of seed infection by Diaporthe spp. and Fusarium spp. in 2008 and 2010, but high levels in 2009, when environmental conditions were especially favorable for these pathogens. AP 350 and Suweon97 had relatively high seed infection incidences, particularly of Diaporthe spp. and Fusarium spp., and relatively low seed vigor. Application of the foliar fungicide azoxystrobin at the R5 growth stage significantly increased AA across years and cultivars and increased seed infection by Diaporthe spp. in 2009 across cultivars. There were significant negative correlations between yield and seed infection by Diaporthe spp. and Bacillus subtilis during 1 year and with Fusarium spp. during all 3 years. Overall, resistance to seed infection can persist even when harvest is delayed. In addition to Diaporthe spp., other seedborne pathogens may reduce seed vigor and yield.

Discovery of new group I-D introns leads to creation of subtypes and link to an adaptive response of the mitochondrial genome in fungi

Group I catalytic introns are widespread in bacterial, archaeal, viral, organellar, and some eukaryotic genomes, where they are reported to provide regulatory functions. The group I introns are currently divided into five types (A-E), which are themselves distributed into several subtypes, with the exception of group I type D intron (GI-D). GI-D introns belong to the rarest group with only 17 described to date, including only one with a putative role reported in fungi, where it would interfere with an adaptive response in the cytochrome b (COB) gene to quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) fungicide resistance. Using homology search methods taking into account both conserved sequences and RNA secondary structures, we analysed the mitochondrial genomes or COB genes of 169 fungal species, including some frequently under QoI selection pressure. These analyses have led to the identification of 216 novel GI-D introns, and the definition of three distinct subtypes, one of which being linked with a functional activity. We have further uncovered a homing site for this GI-D intron type, which helps refine the accepted model of quinone outside inhibitor resistance, whereby mobility of the intron across fungal mitochondrial genomes, would influence a fungus ability to develop resistance to QoIs.

Modeling the relationship between estimated fungicide use and disease-associated yield losses of soybean in the United States I: Foliar fungicides vs foliar diseases

Fungicide use in the United States to manage soybean diseases has increased in recent years. The ability of fungicides to reduce disease-associated yield losses varies greatly depending on multiple factors. Nonetheless, historical data are useful to understand the broad sense and long-term trends related to fungicide use practices. In the current study, the relationship between estimated soybean yield losses due to selected foliar diseases and foliar fungicide use was investigated using annual data from 28 soybean growing states over the period of 2005 to 2015. For national and regional (southern and northern United States) scale data, mixed effects modeling was performed considering fungicide use as a fixed and state and year as random factors to generate generalized R2 values for marginal (R2GLMM(m); contains only fixed effects) and conditional (R2GLMM(c); contains fixed and random effects) models. Similar analyses were performed considering soybean production data to see how fungicide use affected production. Analyses at both national and regional scales showed that R2GLMM(m) values were significantly smaller compared to R2GLMM(c) values. The large difference between R2 values for conditional and marginal models indicated that the variation of yield loss as well as production were predominantly explained by the state and year rather than the fungicide use, revealing the general lack of fit between fungicide use and yield loss/production at national and regional scales. Therefore, regression models were fitted across states and years to examine their importance in combination with fungicide use on yield loss or yield. In the majority of cases, the relationship was nonsignificant. However, the relationship between soybean yield and fungicide use was significant and positive for majority of the years in the study. Results suggest that foliar fungicides conferred yield benefits in most of the years in the study. Furthermore, the year-dependent usefulness of foliar fungicides in mitigating soybean yield losses suggested the possible influence of temporally fluctuating abiotic factors on the effectiveness of foliar fungicides and/or target disease occurrence and associated loss magnitudes.

Cytochrome b Mutations F129L and G143A Confer Resistance to Azoxystrobin in Cercospora nicotianae, the Frogeye Leaf Spot Pathogen of Tobacco

Azoxystrobin is the only synthetic, systemic fungicide labeled in the United States for management of frogeye leaf spot (FLS) of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), caused by Cercospora nicotianae. Though traditionally considered a minor disease in the United States, FLS has recently become yield and quality limiting. In 2016 and 2017, 100 C. nicotianae isolates were collected from symptomatic tobacco from eight counties in Kentucky, United States. Prior to azoxystrobin sensitivity testing, some C. nicotianae isolates were found to utilize the alternative oxidase pathway and, after assay comparisons, conidial germination was utilized to evaluate sensitivity in C. nicotianae as opposed to mycelial growth. Azoxystrobin sensitivity was determined by establishing the effective concentration to inhibit 50% conidial germination (EC50) for 47 (in 2016) and 53 (in 2017) C. nicotianae isolates. Distributions of C. nicotianae EC50 values indicated three qualitative levels of sensitivity to azoxystrobin. Partial cytochrome b sequence, encompassing the F129L and G143A mutation sites, indicated single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) conferring the F129L mutation in C. nicotianae of moderate resistance (azoxystrobin at 0.177 ≤ EC50 ≤ 0.535 µg/ml) and the G143A mutation in isolates with an azoxystrobin-resistant phenotype (azoxystrobin EC50 > 1.15 µg/ml). Higher frequencies of resistant isolates were identified from greenhouse transplant (4 of 17) and conventionally produced (58 of 62) tobacco samples, as compared with field-grown tobacco (<4 weeks prior to harvest; 4 of 62) or organically produced samples (1 of 7), respectively. Together, these results suggest that resistance to azoxystrobin in C. nicotianae occurs broadly in Kentucky, and generate new hypotheses about selection pressure affecting resistance mutation frequencies.

Genetic diversity, QoI fungicide resistance, and mating type distribution of Cercospora sojina-Implications for the disease dynamics of frogeye leaf spot on soybean

Frogeye leaf spot (FLS), caused by Cercospora sojina, causes significant damage to soybean in the U.S. One control strategy is the use of quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) fungicides. QoI resistant isolates were first reported in Tennessee (TN) in 2010. To investigate the disease dynamics of C. sojina, we collected 437 C. sojina isolates in 2015 from Jackson and Milan, TN and used 40 historical isolates collected from 2006-2009 from TN and ten additional states for comparison. A subset of 186 isolates, including historical isolates, were genotyped for 49 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and the QoI resistance locus, revealing 35 unique genotypes. The genotypes clustered into three groups with two groups containing only sensitive isolates and the remaining group containing all resistant isolates and a dominant clonal lineage of 130 isolates. All 477 C. sojina isolates were genotyped for the QoI locus revealing 344 resistant and 133 sensitive isolates. All isolates collected prior to 2015 were QoI sensitive. Both mating type alleles (MAT1-1-1 and MAT1-2) were found in Jackson and Milan, TN and recovered from single lesions suggesting sexual recombination may play a role in the epidemiology of field populations. Analysis of C. sojina isolates using SNP markers proved useful to investigate population diversity and to elaborate on diversity as it relates to QoI resistance and mating type.

Cercospora zeina from Maize in South Africa Exhibits High Genetic Diversity and Lack of Regional Population Differentiation

South Africa is one of the leading maize-producing countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Since the 1980s, Cercospora zeina, a causal agent of gray leaf spot of maize, has become endemic in South Africa, and is responsible for substantial yield reductions. To assess genetic diversity and population structure of C. zeina in South Africa, 369 isolates were collected from commercial maize farms in three provinces (KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, and North West). These isolates were evaluated with 14 microsatellite markers and species-specific mating type markers that were designed from draft genome sequences of C. zeina isolates from Africa (CMW 25467) and the United States (USPA-4). Sixty alleles were identified across 14 loci, and gene diversity values within each province ranged from 0.18 to 0.35. High levels of gene flow were observed (Nm = 5.51), and in a few cases, identical multilocus haplotypes were found in different provinces. Overall, 242 unique multilocus haplotypes were identified with a low clonal fraction of 34%. No distinct population clusters were identified using STRUCTURE, principal coordinate analysis, or Weir's theta θ statistic. The lack of population differentiation was supported by analysis of molecular variance tests, which indicated that only 2% of the variation was attributed to variability between populations from each province. Mating type ratios of MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 idiomorphs from 335 isolates were not significantly different from a 1:1 ratio in all provinces, which provided evidence for sexual reproduction. The draft genome of C. zeina CMW 25467 exhibited a complete genomic copy of the MAT1-1 idiomorph as well as exonic fragments of MAT genes from both idiomorphs. The high level of gene diversity, shared haplotypes at different geographical locations within South Africa, and presence of both MAT idiomorphs at all sites indicates widespread dispersal of C. zeina between maize fields in the country as well as evidence for sexual recombination. The outcomes of this genome-enabled study are important for disease management since the high diversity has implications for dispersal of fungicide resistance should it emerge and the need for diversified resistance breeding.

Occurrence of QoI Fungicide Resistance in Cercospora sojina from Mississippi Soybean

Frogeye leaf spot, caused by Cercospora sojina Hara, is a foliar disease affecting soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), often managed by applications of quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) fungicides. In 2013 and 2014, 634 C. sojina monoconidial isolates were collected from soybean fields throughout Mississippi. Initially, in vitro bioassays were performed to evaluate the sensitivity of 14 of 634 isolates plus a baseline. Resistant and sensitive isolates were characterized by determining the effective fungicide concentrations at which 50% of conidial germination was inhibited (EC₅₀). The molecular mechanism of resistance was determined for all 634 isolates, using a PCR-RFLP method and comparing nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene. The state of Mississippi was divided into five distinct geographical regions (the Hills, Delta, Pines, Capital, and Coast) based on estimates of total soybean hectares. The greatest proportion (16.7%) of QoI-sensitive isolates was collected in the Hills while the Coast had no QoI-sensitive isolates. QoI-sensitive isolates from the Pines, Capital, and Delta ranged from 1.6 to 7.0%. Results of this study determined that more than 93% of C. sojina isolates collected in Mississippi carried the G143A amino acid substitution, indicating a shift to a QoI-resistant population throughout Mississippi soybean fields.