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Malewicz NM, Ieong HFH, Oeck S, Kumowski N, Zhang Z, Shimada SG, LaMotte RH. Punctate Administration of Ficin as a Human and Animal Model of Non-Histaminergic Itch. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2022; 36:1300-1307. [PMID: 35412669 PMCID: PMC9296617 DOI: 10.1111/jdv.18142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ficin, a cysteine protease derived from fig-tree latex, has been reported to elicit itch and nociceptive sensations, though quantitative sensory studies are lacking. Cowhage containing the pruritic cysteine Mucunain, on the other hand, has been widely studied as activating polymodal nociceptors and eliciting a histamine-independent itch. OBJECTIVES We tested whether ficin in heat-inactivated cowhage spicules would elicit itch and nociceptive sensations in humans, and analogous behaviors in mice, that are similar to those evoked by native cowhage and, whether these behaviors in mice were dose-dependent when ficin was injected intradermally. METHODS Human volunteers rated the magnitude of itch and nociceptive sensations evoked by either native cowhage spicules or heat-inactivated spicules soaked in 1, 10 or 100 mg/ml ficin (0.03, 0.3, and 3 ng of ficin in spicule tip), applied to forearm. In mice, itch-like scratching and nociceptive-like wiping were recorded in response to either native cowhage, to heat-inactivated spicules that were either inactive or contained 100 mg/ml ficin, or to intradermal injections of 1.25, 2.5, or 5 μg/ 5 μl, each treatment applied to the cheek. RESULTS The dose of 100 mg/ml ficin in spicules evoked comparable magnitudes of itch, nociceptive sensations and areas of cutaneous dysesthesia as native cowhage in humans and comparable itch-like scratching and pain-like wiping behaviors in mice. But to elicit similar behaviors when injected intradermally in mice a greater amount of ficin (1.25 μg) was required. CONCLUSION Spicule-delivery or intradermal injection of ficin elicits behaviors in mice that model itch and nociceptive sensations in humans, suggesting that ficin may be useful in translating mechanistic research on the neural mechanisms of pruritic and nociceptive effects of cysteine proteases between the two species.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Malewicz
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 330 Cedar St, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA.,Clinics for Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University Hospital of Ruhr University Bergmannsheil Bochum, 44789, Germany
| | - H F-H Ieong
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 330 Cedar St, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - S Oeck
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Medical Oncology, West German Cancer Center, University Hospital Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - N Kumowski
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 330 Cedar St, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Z Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 330 Cedar St, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - S G Shimada
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 330 Cedar St, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - R H LaMotte
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 330 Cedar St, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
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Spinal PAR2 Activation Contributes to Hypersensitivity Induced by Peripheral Inflammation in Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22030991. [PMID: 33498178 PMCID: PMC7863954 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22030991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of inflammatory pain need to be identified in order to find new superior treatments. Protease-activated receptors 2 (PAR2) and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) are highly co-expressed in dorsal root ganglion neurons and implicated in pain development. Here, we examined the role of spinal PAR2 in hyperalgesia and the modulation of synaptic transmission in carrageenan-induced peripheral inflammation, using intrathecal (i.t.) treatment in the behavioral experiments and recordings of spontaneous, miniature and dorsal root stimulation-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs, mEPSCs and eEPSCs) in spinal cord slices. Intrathecal PAR2-activating peptide (AP) administration aggravated the carrageenan-induced thermal hyperalgesia, and this was prevented by a TRPV1 antagonist (SB 366791) and staurosporine i.t. pretreatment. Additionally, the frequency of the mEPSC and sEPSC and the amplitude of the eEPSC recorded from the superficial dorsal horn neurons were enhanced after acute PAR2 AP application, while prevented with SB 366791 or staurosporine pretreatment. PAR2 antagonist application reduced the thermal hyperalgesia and decreased the frequency of mEPSC and sEPSC and the amplitude of eEPSC. Our findings highlight the contribution of spinal PAR2 activation to carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia and the importance of dorsal horn PAR2 and TRPV1 receptor interactions in the modulation of nociceptive synaptic transmission.
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Shin YS, Kim HW, Kim CD, Kim HW, Park JW, Jung S, Lee JH, Ko YK, Lee YH. Protease-Activated Receptor-2 Is Associated with Terminal Differentiation of Epidermis and Eccrine Sweat Glands. Ann Dermatol 2015; 27:364-70. [PMID: 26273149 PMCID: PMC4530143 DOI: 10.5021/ad.2015.27.4.364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR-2) participates in various biological activities, including the regulation of epidermal barrier homeostasis, inflammation, pain perception, and melanosome transfer in the skin. Objective To evaluate the basic physiological role of PAR-2 in skin. Methods We investigated PAR-2 expression in human epidermis, skin tumors, and cultured epidermal cells using western blot and immunohistochemical analysis. Additionally, we examined the effect of the PAR-2 agonist, SLIGRL-NH2, on cultured keratinocytes. Results Strong PAR-2 immunoreactivity was observed in the granular layer of normal human skin and the acrosyringium of the eccrine sweat glands. In contrast, weak PAR-2 immunoreactivity was seen in the granular layer of callused skin and in the duct and gland cells of the eccrine sweat glands. Interestingly, PAR-2 immunoreactivity was very weak or absent in the tumor cells of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and syringoma. PAR-2 was detected in primary keratinocytes and SV-40T-transformed human epidermal keratinocytes (SV-HEKs), an immortalized keratinocyte cell line, but not in SCC12 cells. SV-HEKs that were fully differentiated following calcium treatment displayed higher PAR-2 expression than undifferentiated SV-HEKs. Treatment of cultured SV-HEKs with PAR-2 agonist increased loricrin and filaggrin expression, a terminal differentiation marker. Conclusion Our data suggest that PAR-2 is associated with terminal differentiation of epidermis and eccrine sweat glands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Sup Shin
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Hyung Won Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Chang Deok Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Hyun-Woo Kim
- Department of Physiology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | | | - Sunggyun Jung
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Konyang University Hospital, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jeung-Hoon Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Young-Kwon Ko
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Young Ho Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Chungnam National University School of Medicine, Daejeon, Korea
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Akiyama T, Nagamine M, Carstens MI, Carstens E. Behavioral model of itch, alloknesis, pain and allodynia in the lower hindlimb and correlative responses of lumbar dorsal horn neurons in the mouse. Neuroscience 2014; 266:38-46. [PMID: 24530451 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Revised: 02/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
We have further developed a behavioral model of itch and pain in the lower hindlimb (calf) originally reported by LaMotte et al. (2011) that allows comparisons with responses of lumbar dorsal horn neurons to pruritic and noxious stimuli. Intradermal (id) microinjection of the pruritogens histamine, SLIGRL-NH2 (agonist of PAR-2 and MrgprC11) and chloroquine (agonist of MrgprA3) into the calf of the lower limb elicited significant biting and a small amount of licking directed to the injection site, over a 30-min time course. Following id injection of histamine, low-threshold mechanical stimuli reliably elicited discrete episodes of biting (alloknesis) over a longer time course; significantly less alloknesis was observed following id injection of SLIGRL-NH2. Capsaicin injections elicited licking but little biting. Following id injection of capsaicin, low-threshold mechanical stimuli elicited discrete hindlimb flinches (allodynia) over a prolonged (>2h) time course. In single-unit recordings from superficial lumbar dorsal horn neurons, low-threshold mechanically evoked responses were significantly enhanced, accompanied by receptive field expansion, following id injection of histamine in histamine-responsive neurons. This was not observed in histamine-insensitive neurons, or following id injection of saline or SLIGRL-NH2, regardless of whether the latter activated the neuron or not. These results suggest that itch-responsive neurons are selectively sensitized by histamine but not SLIGRL-NH2 to account for alloknesis. The presently described "calf" model appears to distinguish between itch- and pain-related behavioral responses, and provides a basis to investigate lumbar spinal neural mechanisms underlying itch, alloknesis, pain and allodynia.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Akiyama
- University of California, Davis, Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - M Nagamine
- University of California, Davis, Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - M I Carstens
- University of California, Davis, Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - E Carstens
- University of California, Davis, Department of Neurobiology, Physiology & Behavior, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Undem BJ, Taylor-Clark T. Mechanisms underlying the neuronal-based symptoms of allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2014; 133:1521-34. [PMID: 24433703 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2013.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Revised: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Persons with allergies present with symptoms that often are the result of alterations in the nervous system. Neuronally based symptoms depend on the organ in which the allergic reaction occurs but can include red itchy eyes, sneezing, nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, coughing, bronchoconstriction, airway mucus secretion, dysphagia, altered gastrointestinal motility, and itchy swollen skin. These symptoms occur because mediators released during an allergic reaction can interact with sensory nerves, change processing in the central nervous system, and alter transmission in sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric autonomic nerves. In addition, evidence supports the idea that in some subjects this neuromodulation is, for reasons poorly understood, upregulated such that the same degree of nerve stimulus causes a larger effect than seen in healthy subjects. There are distinctions in the mechanisms and nerve types involved in allergen-induced neuromodulation among different organ systems, but general principles have emerged. The products of activated mast cells, other inflammatory cells, and resident cells can overtly stimulate nerve endings, cause long-lasting changes in neuronal excitability, increase synaptic efficacy, and also change gene expression in nerves, resulting in phenotypically altered neurons. A better understanding of these processes might lead to novel therapeutic strategies aimed at limiting the suffering of those with allergies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley J Undem
- Division of Allergy & Clinical Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Md.
| | - Thomas Taylor-Clark
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Fla
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Hoffmeister C, Trevisan G, Rossato MF, de Oliveira SM, Gomez MV, Ferreira J. Role of TRPV1 in nociception and edema induced by monosodium urate crystals in rats. Pain 2011; 152:1777-1788. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2011.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Bhatt DK, Ploug KB, Ramachandran R, Olesen J, Gupta S. Activation of PAR-2 Elicits NO-Dependent and CGRP-Independent Dilation of the Dural Artery. Headache 2010; 50:1017-30. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1526-4610.2010.01679.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Zhang XC, Levy D. Modulation of meningeal nociceptors mechanosensitivity by peripheral proteinase-activated receptor-2: the role of mast cells. Cephalalgia 2008; 28:276-84. [PMID: 18254896 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2982.2007.01523.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory-related activation and sensitization of meningeal nociceptors is believed to play a key role in promoting the intracranial throbbing pain of migraine. We have shown recently that mast cell activation and various mast cell-derived inflammatory mediators can promote activation and sensitization of meningeal nociceptors. Mast cell tryptase has also been proposed to promote pain hypersensitivity by activating the proteinase-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) that is expressed on nociceptive neurons. In this study using in vivo single-unit recording in the trigeminal ganglion of anaesthetized rats, we found that local meningeal activation of PAR2 using the specific agonist SLIGRL-NH2 promoted sensitization of the threshold response while provoking desensitization of the suprathreshold responses. SLIGRL-NH2 also excited a subpopulation of meningeal nociceptors. Chronic mast cell depletion enhanced the sensitizing effects of PAR2 activation while curbing its desensitizing effects. Mast cell depletion did not change the PAR2-mediated excitatory effect. We propose that by enhancing the mechanical sensitivity of meningeal nociceptors local PAR2 activation could play a role in promoting the throbbing pain of migraine and that local mast cell degranulation may modulate such an effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- X-C Zhang
- Department of Anaesthesia, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Masuko K, Nakamura H. Functional somatic syndrome: how it could be relevant to rheumatologists. Mod Rheumatol 2007; 17:179-84. [PMID: 17564771 DOI: 10.1007/s10165-007-0563-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Accepted: 03/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Functional somatic syndrome (FSS) is defined as a group of related syndromes characterized more by symptoms, suffering, and disability than by structural or functional abnormality. The diagnostic criteria and/or symptoms of FSS often overlap, and co-morbidity is commonly found among the diseases of FSS. For example, patients with irritable bowel syndrome often suffer from chronic pain, and a high percentage of co-morbidity can be found with fibromyalgia. Accumulating evidence indicates the presence of visceral and somatic hyperalgesia in FSS as a common feature, and the central sensitization mechanism has been suggested to play an important role in the pathophysiology of FSS. In the present article, the authors introduce the concept of FSS focusing on its possible relevance to rheumatology in terms of pain perception. A possible implication of mast cells and proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) in FSS is also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayo Masuko
- Department of Bioregulation and Proteomics, Institute of Medical Science, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Kawasaki 216-8512, Japan.
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Moffatt JD. Proteinase-activated receptors in the lower urinary tract. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2007; 375:1-9. [PMID: 17294233 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-007-0139-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2006] [Accepted: 01/25/2007] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Proteinase-activated receptors (PARs) are G-protein-coupled receptors that convert specific extracellular proteolytic activity into intracellular signals, and have been suggested to play diverse roles in the body. In this review, evidence for the roles of PARs in bladder contractility and inflammation are presented. The role of PARs in prostate cancer is also reviewed. The existing literature in this area can be difficult to interpret due to the many nonspecific actions of the pharmacological tools employed. Although there are reports that PAR activators can cause contraction of bladder smooth muscle, further pharmacological and molecular studies are required to define roles for these receptors in bladder contractility. While structural studies suggest that roles for PARs in bladder inflammation are likely, few functional investigations have been performed. The significance of the expression of PARs on sensory nerves innervating the bladder and changes in receptor expression in inflammatory disease models are fascinating areas for future research. Finally, it seems probable that PARs, particularly PAR1, may play important roles in the growth and metastasis of prostate cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D Moffatt
- Veterinary Basic Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London, NW1 0TU, UK.
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Patwardhan AM, Diogenes A, Berg KA, Fehrenbacher JC, Clarke WP, Akopian AN, Hargreaves KM. PAR-2 agonists activate trigeminal nociceptors and induce functional competence in the delta opioid receptor. Pain 2006; 125:114-24. [PMID: 16781076 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2006.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2005] [Revised: 03/30/2006] [Accepted: 05/03/2006] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The role of protease activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) activation in trigeminal nociception and in induction of functional competence in the delta opioid receptor (DOR) is not known. In this study, we evaluated whether agonists of PAR-2 activate the capsaicin-sensitive subclass of trigeminal nociceptors in a PLC-PKC-dependent manner and induce functional competence in the DOR. Adult male rat trigeminal ganglion (TG) cultured neurons were treated with the PAR-2 agonist (SL-NH2) or an enzyme activator of PAR (trypsin) and the activation of TG nociceptors was assessed using three independent methods: neuropeptide release, calcium influx, and whole cell patch-clamp. The specificity of SL-NH2 and trypsin responses was evaluated using TG cultures transfected with siRNA against PAR-2. The in vivo role of PAR-2 activation was determined measuring SL-NH2 and trypsin-evoked nocifensive behavior and increase in blood flow. Trigeminal neurons were treated with SL-NH2/vehicle and then the DOR agonist to determine DOR inhibition of evoked neuropeptide release and cAMP accumulation. The results showed that SL-NH2 (100 microM) and trypsin (1-600 nM) activate TG nociceptors, which is partly reversible by the PKC inhibitor bisindolylmaleimide (500 nM) and by ruthenium red (10 microM). In cultures treated with siRNA against PAR-2, both SL-NH2 and trypsin responses were significantly diminished. Both SL-NH2 and trypsin evoke nocifensive behavior and increases in blood flow in an orofacial pain model. Application of SL-NH2 rapidly produced functional competence of DOR for inhibiting nociceptor function. In inflamed tissue, endogenous proteases may activate TG nociceptors and generate pain. Moreover, activation of PAR-2 can also induce functional competence in DOR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amol M Patwardhan
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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Saito T, Bunnett NW. Protease-activated receptors: regulation of neuronal function. Neuromolecular Med 2005; 7:79-99. [PMID: 16052040 DOI: 10.1385/nmm:7:1-2:079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2004] [Revised: 02/13/2005] [Accepted: 02/17/2005] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Certain serine proteases from the circulation (e.g., coagulation factors), inflammatory cells (e.g., mast-cell tryptase, neutrophil proteinase 3), and from many other cell types (e.g., trypsins) can specifically signal to cells by cleaving protease-activated receptors (PARs), a family of four G protein-coupled receptors. Proteases cleave PARs at specific sites within the extracellular amino-terminus to expose amino-terminal tethered ligand domains that bind to and activate the cleaved receptors. The proteases that activate PARs are often generated and released during injury and inflammation, and activated PARs orchestrate tissue responses to injury, including hemostasis, inflammation, pain, and repair. This review concerns protease and PAR signaling in the nervous system. Neurons of the central and peripheral nervous systems express all four PARs. Proteases that may derive from the circulation, inflammatory cells, or neural tissues can cleave PARs on neurons and thereby activate diverse signaling pathways that control survival, morphology, release of neurotransmitters, and activity of ion channels. In this manner proteases and PARs regulate neurodegeneration, neurogenic inflammation, and pain transmission. Thus, PARs may participate in disease states and PAR antagonists or agonists may be useful therapies for certain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Saito
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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