Trauma in pregnancy

Trauma in pregnancy: A narrative review of the current literature

INTRODUCTION

Trauma accounts for nearly half of all deaths of pregnant women. Pregnant women have distinct physiologic and anatomic characteristics which complicate their management following major trauma.

OBJECTIVE

This paper comprises a narrative review of the most recent literature informing the management of pregnant trauma patients.

DISCUSSION

The incidence of trauma during pregnancy is 6-8%. The focus of clinical assessment must be on the mother, starting with the primary survey. During airway management, clinicians should consider early intubation if necessary and utilize gastric tubes to minimize the risk of aspiration. Pregnant women experience progesterone-mediated hyperventilation, and normal PaCO2 levels may portend imminent respiratory failure. Clinicians should utilize left lateral tilt in hypotensive pregnant women to displace the uterus off the inferior vena cava. Ultrasonography is an attractive imaging modality for pregnant women which is specific for ruling in intraabdominal hemorrhage but not sufficiently sensitive to exclude this diagnosis. Clinicians should not hesitate to order computed tomography imaging in unstable patients if there is diagnostic ambiguity. Cardiotocographic monitoring simultaneously assesses uterine contractions and fetal heart rate and should last at least 4 h for pregnant women following even minor abdominal trauma if their fetus has achieved viable gestational age (approximately 24 weeks). In the event of cardiac arrest, peri-mortem cesarean section may improve outcomes for the mother and fetus alike. Unique specific complications include uterine rupture and placental abruption, which require emergent resuscitation and obstetrics consultation for definitive management. Emergency clinicians should maintain a low threshold for transfer to a tertiary care center given correlations between even isolated and relatively minor traumatic injuries with adverse fetal and maternal outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Trauma is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in pregnant women. Emergency clinicians must understand the evaluation and management of pregnant trauma patients.

Recognition and management of traumatic fetal injuries

Trauma during pregnancy is the leading non-obstetric cause of morbidity and mortality, and accounts for five per 1000 fetal deaths. Direct fetal injury due to trauma during pregnancy is rare, and limited information is available about how to optimize fetal outcomes after injury. Early recognition and appropriate management of direct fetal trauma may improve outcomes for the fetus. There are currently no available guidelines to direct management of the injured fetus. We provide a detailed literature review of the management and outcomes of direct fetal injury following blunt and penetrating injury during pregnancy, and describe a suggested initial approach to the injured pregnant patient with a focus on evaluation for fetal injury. We identified 45 reported cases of blunt trauma resulting in direct fetal injury, with 21 surviving past the neonatal period, and 33 of penetrating trauma resulting in direct fetal injury, with 24 surviving past the neonatal period. Prenatal imaging identified fetal injury in 19 cases of blunt trauma and was used to identify bullet location relative to the fetus in 6 cases. These reports were used to develop management algorithms for the injured fetus.

The Pregnant Trauma Patient

Trauma is the leading non-obstetric cause of maternal death. Optimal management of the pregnant trauma patient requires a multidisciplinary approach. The anaesthetist and critical care physician play a pivotal role in the entire continuum of fetomaternal care, from initial assessment, resuscitation and intraoperative management, to postoperative care that often involves critical care support and patient transfer. Primary goals are aggressive resuscitation of the mother and maintenance of uteroplacental perfusion and fetal oxygenation by the avoidance of hypoxia, hypotension, hypocapnia, acidosis and hypothermia. Recognizing and understanding the mechanisms of injury, the factors that may predict fetal outcome, and the pathophysiological changes that can result from trauma, will allow early identification and treatment of fetomaternal injury. This in turn should improve morbidity and mortality. A framework for the acute care of the pregnant trauma patient is presented.

The impact of minor trauma on pregnancy

Purpose

To determine the impact of a single episode of minor trauma during pregnancy on maternal and fetal outcomes.

Methods

This is a retrospective cohort study of pregnant women who experienced minor trauma at ≥24 weeks gestation between 2004 and 2014. The subjects who experienced minor trauma (minor trauma group) were matched by gestational age at the time of minor trauma, body mass index, and age to a cohort of women who did not experience trauma in pregnancy (control group). The primary obstetrical outcome was preterm delivery and the primary neonatal outcomes were APGAR scores and neonatal intensive care unit admission.

Results

There were no significant differences between the two groups with respect to demographics or other risk factors for preterm delivery. Average gestational age at the time of delivery was 39 weeks regardless of whether a woman experienced minor trauma. Preterm delivery occurred more often in the control group (11.8% versus 7.9%, p = 0.0428) as did the rate of neonatal intensive care unit admissions (8.6% versus 5%, p = 0.0273). A subgroup analysis was performed excluding patients with a medically indicated delivery and there was no difference in the rate of preterm delivery (6.4% in the control group, 4% in the minor trauma group, p-value 0.9052). Among women with a spontaneous preterm delivery, the rates of preterm labor (3.0% control versus 2.0% minor trauma, p-value 0.75) and preterm premature rupture of membranes were found to be similar between the two groups (3.8% control versus 2.0% minor trauma PPROM, p-value 0.75).

Conclusions

One episode of minor trauma in pregnancy does not increase the risk for preterm delivery, premature rupture of membranes, or poor neonatal outcomes.

Guidelines for the Management of a Pregnant Trauma Patient

OBJECTIVE

Physical trauma affects 1 in 12 pregnant women and has a major impact on maternal mortality and morbidity and on pregnancy outcome. A multidisciplinary approach is warranted to optimize outcome for both the mother and her fetus. The aim of this document is to provide the obstetric care provider with an evidence-based systematic approach to the pregnant trauma patient.

OUTCOMES

Significant health and economic outcomes considered in comparing alternative practices.

EVIDENCE

Published literature was retrieved through searches of Medline, CINAHL, and The Cochrane Library from October 2007 to September 2013 using appropriate controlled vocabulary (e.g., pregnancy, Cesarean section, hypotension, domestic violence, shock) and key words (e.g., trauma, perimortem Cesarean, Kleihauer-Betke, supine hypotension, electrical shock). Results were restricted to systematic reviews, randomized control trials/controlled clinical trials, and observational studies published in English between January 1968 and September 2013. Searches were updated on a regular basis and incorporated in the guideline to February 2014. Grey (unpublished) literature was identified through searching the websites of health technology assessment and health technology-related agencies, clinical practice guideline collections, clinical trial registries, and national and international medical specialty societies.

VALUES

The quality of evidence in this document was rated using the criteria described in the Report of the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care (Table 1).

BENEFITS, HARMS, AND COSTS

This guideline is expected to facilitate optimal and uniform care for pregnancies complicated by trauma. Summary Statement Specific traumatic injuries At this time, there is insufficient evidence to support the practice of disabling air bags for pregnant women. (III) Recommendations Primary survey 1. Every female of reproductive age with significant injuries should be considered pregnant until proven otherwise by a definitive pregnancy test or ultrasound scan. (III-C) 2. A nasogastric tube should be inserted in a semiconscious or unconscious injured pregnant woman to prevent aspiration of acidic gastric content. (III-C) 3. Oxygen supplementation should be given to maintain maternal oxygen saturation > 95% to ensure adequate fetal oxygenation. (II-1B) 4. If needed, a thoracostomy tube should be inserted in an injured pregnant woman 1 or 2 intercostal spaces higher than usual. (III-C) 5. Two large bore (14 to 16 gauge) intravenous lines should be placed in a seriously injured pregnant woman. (III-C) 6. Because of their adverse effect on uteroplacental perfusion, vasopressors in pregnant women should be used only for intractable hypotension that is unresponsive to fluid resuscitation. (II-3B) 7. After mid-pregnancy, the gravid uterus should be moved off the inferior vena cava to increase venous return and cardiac output in the acutely injured pregnant woman. This may be achieved by manual displacement of the uterus or left lateral tilt. Care should be taken to secure the spinal cord when using left lateral tilt. (II-1B) 8. To avoid rhesus D (Rh) alloimmunization in Rh-negative mothers, O-negative blood should be transfused when needed until cross-matched blood becomes available. (I-A) 9. The abdominal portion of military anti-shock trousers should not be inflated on a pregnant woman because this may reduce placental perfusion. (II-3B) Transfer to health care facility 10. Transfer or transport to a maternity facility (triage of a labour and delivery unit) is advocated when injuries are neither life- nor limb-threatening and the fetus is viable (≥ 23 weeks), and to the emergency room when the fetus is under 23 weeks' gestational age or considered to be non-viable. When the injury is major, the patient should be transferred or transported to the trauma unit or emergency room, regardless of gestational age. (III-B) 11. When the severity of injury is undetermined or when the gestational age is uncertain, the patient should be evaluated in the trauma unit or emergency room to rule out major injuries. (III-C) Evaluation of a pregnant trauma patient in the emergency room 12. In cases of major trauma, the assessment, stabilization, and care of the pregnant women is the first priority; then, if the fetus is viable (≥ 23 weeks), fetal heart rate auscultation and fetal monitoring can be initiated and an obstetrical consultation obtained as soon as feasible. (II-3B) 13. In pregnant women with a viable fetus (≥ 23 weeks) and suspected uterine contractions, placental abruption, or traumatic uterine rupture, urgent obstetrical consultation is recommended. (II-3B) 14. In cases of vaginal bleeding at or after 23 weeks, speculum or digital vaginal examination should be deferred until placenta previa is excluded by a prior or current ultrasound scan. (III-C) Adjunctive tests for maternal assessment 15. Radiographic studies indicated for maternal evaluation including abdominal computed tomography should not be deferred or delayed due to concerns regarding fetal exposure to radiation. (II-2B) 16. Use of gadolinium-based contrast agents can be considered when maternal benefit outweighs potential fetal risks. (III-C) 17. In addition to the routine blood tests, a pregnant trauma patient should have a coagulation panel including fibrinogen. (III-C) 18. Focused abdominal sonography for trauma should be considered for detection of intraperitoneal bleeding in pregnant trauma patients. (II-3B) 19. Abdominal computed tomography may be considered as an alternative to diagnostic peritoneal lavage or open lavage when intra-abdominal bleeding is suspected. (III-C) Fetal assessment 20. All pregnant trauma patients with a viable pregnancy (≥ 23 weeks) should undergo electronic fetal monitoring for at least 4 hours. (II-3B) 21. Pregnant trauma patients (≥ 23 weeks) with adverse factors including uterine tenderness, significant abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding, sustained contractions (> 1/10 min), rupture of the membranes, atypical or abnormal fetal heart rate pattern, high risk mechanism of injury, or serum fibrinogen < 200 mg/dL should be admitted for observation for 24 hours. (III-B) 22. Anti-D immunoglobulin should be given to all rhesus D-negative pregnant trauma patients. (III-B) 23. In Rh-negative pregnant trauma patients, quantification of maternal-fetal hemorrhage by tests such as Kleihauer-Betke should be done to determine the need for additional doses of anti-D immunoglobulin. (III-B) 24. An urgent obstetrical ultrasound scan should be undertaken when the gestational age is undetermined and need for delivery is anticipated. (III-C) 25. All pregnant trauma patients with a viable pregnancy who are admitted for fetal monitoring for greater than 4 hours should have an obstetrical ultrasound prior to discharge from hospital. (III-C) 26. Fetal well-being should be carefully documented in cases involving violence, especially for legal purposes. (III-C) Obstetrical complications of trauma 27. Management of suspected placental abruption should not be delayed pending confirmation by ultrasonography as ultrasound is not a sensitive tool for its diagnosis. (II-3D) Specific traumatic injuries 28. Tetanus vaccination is safe in pregnancy and should be given when indicated. (II-3B) 29. Every woman who sustains trauma should be questioned specifically about domestic or intimate partner violence. (II-3B) 30. During prenatal visits, the caregiver should emphasize the importance of wearing seatbelts properly at all times. (II-2B) Perimortem Caesarean section 31. A Caesarean section should be performed for viable pregnancies (≥ 23 weeks) no later than 4 minutes (when possible) following maternal cardiac arrest to aid with maternal resuscitation and fetal salvage. (III-B).

Orthostetrics: Management of Orthopedic Conditions in the Pregnant Patient

Managing orthopedic conditions in pregnant patients leads to challenges that must be carefully considered so that the safety of both the mother and the fetus is maintained. Both perioperative and intraoperative considerations must be made based on physiologic changes during pregnancy, risks of radiation, and recommendations for monitoring. Operative timing, imaging, and medication selection are also factors that may vary based on trimester and clinical scenario. Pregnancy introduces unique parameters that can result in undesirable outcomes for both mother and fetus if not handled appropriately. Ultimately, pregnant patients offer a distinct challenge to the orthopedic surgeon in that the well-being of 2 patients must be considered in all aspects of care. In addition, not only does pregnancy affect the management of orthopedic conditions but the pregnant state also causes physiologic changes that may actually induce various pathologies. These pregnancy-related orthopedic conditions can interfere with an otherwise healthy pregnancy and should be recognized as possible complications. Although the management of orthopedic conditions in pregnancy is often conservative, pregnancy does not necessarily preclude safely treating pathologies operatively. When surgery is considered, regional anesthesia provides less overall drug exposure to the fetus and less variability in fetal heart rate. Intraoperative fluoroscopy can be used when appropriate, with 360° fetal shielding if possible. Lateral decubitus positioning is ideal to prevent hypotension associated with compression of the inferior vena cava.

Ankle fracture surgery on a pregnant patient complicated by intraoperative emergency caesarian section

We report the case of a woman in the third trimester of pregnancy who sustained an ankle fracture dislocation that could not be adequately closed reduced. After discussions with the patient, her obstetrician, and the anesthesiologists, she was indicated for surgical fixation. A heart tone monitor was used to assess fetal health during the procedure. During surgical incision, the fetus went into distress, and an emergency caesarian section was performed. After delivery of the infant and abdominal closer, surgery was completed. Due to a cohesive team effort, both the patient and her infant had excellent outcomes. There are many important considerations in the surgical management of the pregnant patient with traumatic orthopaedic injuries. Of especial importance to the orthopaedic surgeon is the impact of patient positioning on uteroplacental blood flow. This report discusses factors that should be taken into account by any orthopaedist who plans to operate on a pregnant patient.

Trauma in pregnancy

Acute traumatic injury during pregnancy is a significant contributor to maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality in the United States. Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of injury-related maternal death, followed by violence and assault. Lack of seat belts or other restraints increases the risks of both maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends proper seat belt use by all pregnant women and screening for domestic abuse. Maternal injury and death from physical abuse is prevalent, and in some communities, homicide is a major cause of pregnancy-associated maternal death. Blunt trauma most often occurs as a result of motor vehicle accidents, whereas penetrating trauma results from gunshots or stabbings. Blunt trauma to the abdomen increases the risk for placental abruption, and direct fetal injury is more likely with penetrating trauma. Management strategies in acute maternal trauma must focus on a thorough assessment of the mother. A coordinated team effort that includes the obstetrician is essential to ensure optimal maternal and fetal outcomes. Imaging studies should not be delayed because of concerns of fetal radiation exposure, because the risk is minimal with usual imaging procedures, especially in mid-to-late pregnancy. The obstetrician should serve in a consultative role if nonobstetric surgical care is required and must also be prepared to intervene on behalf of the mother and the fetus if trauma care is compromised by the pregnancy. Perimortem cesarean delivery should be considered early in the resuscitation of a pregnant trauma victim, especially when fetal viability is a concern. Once the mother is stabilized in the emergency setting, she should be transported for appropriate maternal and fetal observation until both mother and fetus are clear of danger. It is essential that the clinician and staff maintain thorough and accurate documentation and recording of the chronology of events, the maternal and fetal assessment, and the management and outcome of the pregnancy.

The pathophysiology of trauma in pregnancy: A review

Emergency care of the pregnant patient with trauma presents a unique set of circumstances and challenges to physicians. Pregnancy causes anatomic and physiologic changes involving nearly every organ system in the body, making treatment of the pregnant trauma patient difficult. The other factors that make treatment complex are fear of harming the fetus, upsetting the patient, and/or lack of experience. The possibility of pregnancy should be considered in all women of reproductive age with trauma. A profound understanding of the pathophysiology of the pregnant trauma patient might aid in dealing with this complex problem.

The Consequences of High-Risk Behaviors: Trauma During Pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Trauma during pregnancy places two lives at risk. Knowledge of risk factors for trauma during pregnancy may improve outcomes.

METHODS

We reviewed the charts of 188 such patients admitted to a Level I trauma center from 1996 to 2004. A comparison was made of injury severity and outcome from a cohort of nonpregnant female trauma patients selected with a similar temporal occurrence and age range.

RESULTS

Motor vehicle collisions comprised 160 cases, 67 using a restraint device. Of 84 patients tested, 45 tested positive for intoxicants, 16 positive for 2 or more intoxicants. A significant trend toward less testing through the study period was observed (p = 0.0002). Injury severity was assessed by Revised Trauma Score (RTS). RTS <11 or admission to operating room or intensive care units (OR/ICU) classified patients as severely injured. The six maternal fatalities had an RTS <11 or OR/ICU disposition. Fetal outcomes included 155 live in utero, 18 live births, and 15 fatalities correlating with injury severity by either criteria (p < 0.0001). Of the fetal fatalities, 7 occurred with RTS = 12, but only 3 fatalities occurred in the 147 cases not admitted to OR/ICU. Gestational age correlated (p < 0.0001) with fetal outcomes. The 18 live births had mean gestational ages of 35 +/- 4 weeks as compared with fetal fatalities at 20 +/- 9 weeks, and fetuses alive in utero at 22 +/- 9 weeks gestation. Coagulation tests prothrombin time (PT), international normalized ratio (INR) (both p < 0.008), and partial thromboplastin time (PTT) (p < 0.0001) correlated with maternal outcome. A matched cohort of nonpregnancy trauma cases during the same time frame indicated that, despite a significantly higher percentage of severely injured patients, fewer fatalities occurred. This might reflect a greater risk for the pregnant trauma patient.

CONCLUSIONS

This study of trauma in pregnancy cases revealed a high percentage with risk behaviors. There was a significant trend toward less intoxicant testing in recent years. Coagulation tests were the most predictive of outcomes. Lower gestational age correlated with fetal demise.

Orthopaedic trauma in the pregnant patient

Trauma affects up to 8% of pregnancies and is the leading cause of death among pregnant women in the United States. A pregnancy test is mandated for all females of childbearing age who are involved in trauma. Orthopaedic trauma in the pregnant patient is managed similarly to that for all trauma patients. Initial resuscitation efforts should focus on the pregnant patient because stable patient vital signs provide the best chance for fetal survival. In the stable patient, fetal assessment and a pelvic examination are mandatory. Radiographs as well as abdominal ultrasound of the patient and fetal ultrasound are useful. No known biologic risks are associated with magnetic resonance imaging, and no specific fetal abnormalities have been linked with standard low-intensity magnetic resonance imaging. Emergency surgery can be safely performed in most pregnant patients. Avoiding patient hypotension and using left lateral decubitus positioning increase the likelihood of success for the patient and fetus. An experienced multidisciplinary team consisting of an obstetrician, perinatologist, orthopaedic surgeon, anesthesiologist, radiologist, and nursing staff will optimize the treatment of both the pregnant patient and her fetus.

When Your Patient Is From the Obstetric Department: Postpartum Hemorrhage and Massive Transfusion

When caring for patients receiving massive transfusion, the nurse will be required to perform ongoing assessments and apply critical thinking to provide optimum care and avoid further complications. The perianesthesia nurse must be aware of the hemodynamic and coagulation changes of pregnancy when caring for an obstetric patient in the PACU to optimize patient outcomes. Understanding the causes of obstetric hemorrhage, which may result in the need for massive transfusion, will enable the nurse to anticipate and prevent potentially deadly complications.

Operative treatment of acetabular fracture during pregnancy: a case report

We present a case of operative treatment of an acetabular fracture in a pregnant patient in her third trimester. The natural fear of causing harm to the pregnancy or fetus is understandable in such situations, but should not lead to withholding appropriate care. Successful treatment of these rare cases is possible with careful pre-, peri-, and postoperative evaluation of the mother and fetus by a multidisciplinary team.