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Zhao XY, Li JF, Li TZ, Pan CX, Xue FS, Wang GY. Morphine pretreatment protects against cerebral ischemic injury via a cPKCγ-mediated anti-apoptosis pathway. Exp Ther Med 2021; 22:1016. [PMID: 34373702 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.10448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been reported that morphine pretreatment (MP) can exert neuroprotective effects, and that protein kinase C (PKC) participates in the initiation and development of ischemic/hypoxic preconditioning in the brain. However, it remains unknown whether PKC is involved in MP-induced neuroprotection. The aim of the present study, which included in vivo and in vitro experiments, was to determine whether the conventional γ isoform of PKC (cPKCγ) was involved in the protective effects of MP against cerebral ischemic injury. The present study included an in vivo experiment using a mouse model of middle cerebral artery occlusion and an in vitro experiment using neuroblastoma N2a cells with oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Furthermore, a cPKCγ antagonist, Go6983, was used to determine the involvement of cPKCγ in the protective effects of MP against cerebral ischemic injury. In the in vivo experiment, neurological deficits, ischemic infarct volume, neural cell damage, apoptosis and caspase-3 activation were evaluated. In the in vitro experiment, flow cytometry was used to determine the activation of caspase-3 in N2a cells with OGD. It was found that MP protected against cerebral ischemic injury. However, intracerebroventricular injection of the cPKCγ antagonist before MP attenuated the neuroprotective effect of MP and increased the activation of cleaved caspase-3. These findings suggested that MP may provide protection against cerebral ischemic injury via a cPKCγ-mediated anti-apoptosis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yan Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100730, P.R. China
| | - Jun-Fa Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Capital Medical University; Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, P.R. China
| | - Tian-Zuo Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, P.R. China
| | - Chu-Xiong Pan
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Stomatological Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Fu-Shan Xue
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Gu-Yan Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100730, P.R. China
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Ortiz JF, Cruz C, Patel A, Khurana M, Eissa-Garcés A, Alzamora IM, Halan T, Altamimi A, Ruxmohan S, Patel UK. Opioid Antagonist in the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11060805. [PMID: 34206997 PMCID: PMC8233760 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11060805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability, and novel treatments need to be found, particularly drugs with neuroprotective and restorative effects. Lately, there has been an increased interest in the relationship between opioids and ischemic stroke. To further appreciate this association between opioids and stroke, we conducted a systematic review to investigate anti-opioid medication’s effectiveness in treating ischemic stroke. We used PubMed advanced-strategy and Google Scholar searches and only included full-text clinical trials on humans and written in the English language. After applying the inclusion/exclusion criteria, seven clinical trials were reviewed. Only one of the naloxone and nalmefene clinical trials showed statistically favorable results. Overall, the nalmefene clinical trials used more updated measures (NIHSS, GOS) to evaluate recovery and functional status in ischemic stroke patients than the naloxone clinical trials. There was less bias in the nalmefene clinical trials. Animal and in vitro studies have showed promising results. Additional research should be conducted with new clinical trials of both drugs with larger samples in patients less than 70 years old and moderate to severe infarcts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Fernando Ortiz
- School of Medicine, Colegio de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito 170901, Ecuador; (C.C.); (A.E.-G.); (I.M.A.)
- Correspondence: (J.F.O.); (A.P.)
| | - Claudio Cruz
- School of Medicine, Colegio de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito 170901, Ecuador; (C.C.); (A.E.-G.); (I.M.A.)
| | - Amrapali Patel
- Neurology Department, School of Medicine, AMC MET Medical College, Ahmedabad 380008, India
- Correspondence: (J.F.O.); (A.P.)
| | - Mahika Khurana
- Public Health Department, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA;
| | - Ahmed Eissa-Garcés
- School of Medicine, Colegio de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito 170901, Ecuador; (C.C.); (A.E.-G.); (I.M.A.)
| | - Ivan Mateo Alzamora
- School of Medicine, Colegio de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito 170901, Ecuador; (C.C.); (A.E.-G.); (I.M.A.)
| | - Taras Halan
- School of Medicine, Ternopil National Medical University, 46002 Ternopil, Ukraine;
| | - Abbas Altamimi
- Emergency Department, Amiri Hospital, Sharq 15300, Kuwait;
| | - Samir Ruxmohan
- Department of Neurology, Larkin Community Hospital, Miami, FL 10029, USA;
| | - Urvish K. Patel
- Public Health Department, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA;
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Dezfulian C, Orkin AM, Maron BA, Elmer J, Girotra S, Gladwin MT, Merchant RM, Panchal AR, Perman SM, Starks MA, van Diepen S, Lavonas EJ. Opioid-Associated Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest: Distinctive Clinical Features and Implications for Health Care and Public Responses: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2021; 143:e836-e870. [PMID: 33682423 DOI: 10.1161/cir.0000000000000958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Opioid overdose is the leading cause of death for Americans 25 to 64 years of age, and opioid use disorder affects >2 million Americans. The epidemiology of opioid-associated out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in the United States is changing rapidly, with exponential increases in death resulting from synthetic opioids and linear increases in heroin deaths more than offsetting modest reductions in deaths from prescription opioids. The pathophysiology of polysubstance toxidromes involving opioids, asphyxial death, and prolonged hypoxemia leading to global ischemia (cardiac arrest) differs from that of sudden cardiac arrest. People who use opioids may also develop bacteremia, central nervous system vasculitis and leukoencephalopathy, torsades de pointes, pulmonary vasculopathy, and pulmonary edema. Emergency management of opioid poisoning requires recognition by the lay public or emergency dispatchers, prompt emergency response, and effective ventilation coupled to compressions in the setting of opioid-associated out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Effective ventilation is challenging to teach, whereas naloxone, an opioid antagonist, can be administered by emergency medical personnel, trained laypeople, and the general public with dispatcher instruction to prevent cardiac arrest. Opioid education and naloxone distributions programs have been developed to teach people who are likely to encounter a person with opioid poisoning how to administer naloxone, deliver high-quality compressions, and perform rescue breathing. Current American Heart Association recommendations call for laypeople and others who cannot reliably establish the presence of a pulse to initiate cardiopulmonary resuscitation in any individual who is unconscious and not breathing normally; if opioid overdose is suspected, naloxone should also be administered. Secondary prevention, including counseling, opioid overdose education with take-home naloxone, and medication for opioid use disorder, is important to prevent recurrent opioid overdose.
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Burykh EA. The Problem of Assessing Individual Sensitivity and Tolerance to Hypoxia in Animals and Humans. J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093019050016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Kuklin V, Akhatov N, Kondratiev T, Konkayev A, Baigenzhin A, Konkayeva M, Karibekov T, Barlow N, Tveita T, Dahl V. The influences of morphine or ketamine pre-treatment on hemodynamic, acid-base status, biochemical markers of brain damage and early survival in rats after asphyxial cardiac arrest. BMC Anesthesiol 2019; 19:214. [PMID: 31747898 PMCID: PMC6868711 DOI: 10.1186/s12871-019-0884-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In different models of hypoxia, blockade of opioid or N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors shows cardio- and neuroprotective effects with a consequent increase in animal survival. The aim of the study was to investigate effects of pre-treatment with Morphine or Ketamine on hemodynamic, acid-base status, early survival, and biochemical markers of brain damage in a rat model of asphyxial cardiac arrest (ACA). METHODS Under anaesthesia with Thiopental Sodium 60 mg/kg, i.p., Wistar rats (n = 42) were tracheostomized and catheters were inserted in a femoral vein and artery. After randomization, the rats were pre-treated with: Morphine 5 mg/kg i.v. (n = 14); Ketamine 40 mg/kg i.v. (n = 14); or equal volume of i.v. NaCl 0.9% as a Control (n = 14). ACA was induced by corking of the tracheal tube for 8 min, and defined as a mean arterial pressure (MAP) < 20 mmHg. Resuscitation was started at 5 min after cardiac arrest (CA). Invasive MAP was recorded during experiments. Arterial pH and blood gases were sampled at baseline (BL) and 10 min after CA. At the end of experiments, all surviving rats were euthanised, brain and blood samples for measurement of Neuron Specific Enolase (NSE), s100 calcium binding protein B (s100B) and Caspase-3 (CS-3) were retrieved. RESULTS At BL no differences between groups were found in hemodynamic or acid-base status. After 3 min of asphyxia, all animals had cardiac arrest (CA). Return of spontaneous circulation (MAP > 60 mmHg) was achieved in all animals within 3 min after CA. At the end of the experiment, the Ketamine pre-treated group had increased survival (13 of 14; 93%) compared to the Control (7 of 14; 50%) and Morphine (10 of 14; 72%) groups (p = 0.035). Biochemical analysis of plasma concentration of NSE and s100B as well as an analysis of CS-3 levels in the brain tissue did not reveal any differences between the study groups. CONCLUSION In rats after ACA, pre-treatment with Morphine or Ketamine did not have any significant influence on hemodynamic and biochemical markers of brain damage. However, significantly better pH level and increased early survival were found in the Ketamine pre-treated group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Kuklin
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Akershus university hospital, Sykehusveien, 25, 1478, Lørenskog, Norway.
| | - Nurlan Akhatov
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Astana Medical University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.,Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, National Scientific Medical Center, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
| | - Timofei Kondratiev
- Anaesthesia and Critical Care Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, 9037, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Aidos Konkayev
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Astana Medical University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
| | - Abai Baigenzhin
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, National Scientific Medical Center, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
| | - Maiya Konkayeva
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Astana Medical University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
| | - Temirlan Karibekov
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, National Scientific Medical Center, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
| | - Nicholas Barlow
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Akershus university hospital, Sykehusveien, 25, 1478, Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Torkjel Tveita
- Division of Surgical Medicine and Intensive Care, University Hospital of Northern Norway, 9038, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Vegard Dahl
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Akershus university hospital, Sykehusveien, 25, 1478, Lørenskog, Norway.,Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Kuklin V. Survival rate in patients after sudden cardiac arrest at the university hospital of northern Norway treated with or without opioids: A retrospective evaluation. Saudi J Anaesth 2013; 7:310-4. [PMID: 24015136 PMCID: PMC3757806 DOI: 10.4103/1658-354x.115355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Experimental studies both in vivo and in vitro show significantly increased survival rate in animals and in cortical neurons respectively exposed to acute hypoxia and pre-treated with opioids compared to non-treated counterparts. Thus, the main aim of the study was to examine survival rates in patients after sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) in the hospital who were or were not treated with opioids before and/or during cardiac pulmonary resuscitation (CPR). METHODS The registry SCA database at the University Hospital of Northern Norway (UNN) for the period of January 2006-December 2009 was used to obtain data for the evaluation. Inclusion criteria were observed SCA at UNN for patients with American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) 1-3. Exclusion criteria included ASA four to five patients and unobserved SCA. Study patients were divided into two groups: Those not treated with opioids and those treated with opioids not more then 3 h before and/or during CPR. Survival rate 1, 2, 3 and 28 days post CPR were compared for the two groups. RESULTS A total of 117 patients were registered in the SCA database at UNN for the period from January 2006 to December 2009. Sixty seven patients were excluded from the study: 17 patients had an unknown time of SCA dιbut, two patients had only syncope and 48 were ASA four to five patients. A total of 50 ASA one to three patients were included in the study, 33 and 17 patients respectively in the control and opioid-treated groups. The patients who were treated with opioids before or during CPR had a significantly higher 1, 2, 3 and 28 days survival rate as compared to those receiving only conventional CPR. The model was adjusted for duration of CPR (P=0.047) and treatment with adrenaline (P=0.779) in the groups. Adjusted Odds ratio was 0.075 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.015-0.387). Relative risk of fatal outcome in the opioids group was 0.2944 (95% CI: 0.1549-0.5594). CONCLUSION Significantly higher 1, 2, 3 and 28 days survival rate and reduced duration of CPR were found in the patients additionally treated with opioids compared to ordinary resuscitation. Further prospective, randomized, controlled trials are needed to investigate the effects of early administration of opioids during CPR on survival and brain function in patients with witnessed in-hospital SCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Kuklin
- Department of Anaesthesiology, Kongsberg Hospital, Kongsberg, Norway
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Martins HS, Koike MK, Velasco IT. Effects of terlipressin and naloxone compared with epinephrine in a rat model of asphyxia-induced cardiac arrest. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2013; 68:1146-51. [PMID: 24037012 PMCID: PMC3752630 DOI: 10.6061/clinics/2013(08)14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the hemodynamic and metabolic effects of terlipressin and naloxone in cardiac arrest. METHODS Cardiac arrest in rats was induced by asphyxia and maintained for 3.5 minutes. Animals were then resuscitated and randomized into one of six groups: placebo (n = 7), epinephrine (0.02 mg/kg; n = 7), naloxone (1 mg/kg; n = 7) or terlipressin, of which three different doses were tested: 50 µg/kg (TP50; n = 7), 100 µg/kg (TP100; n = 7) and 150 µg/kg (TP150; n = 7). Hemodynamic variables were measured at baseline and at 10 (T10), 20 (T20), 30 (T30), 45 (T45) and 60 (T60) minutes after cardiac arrest. Arterial blood samples were collected at T10, T30 and T60. RESULTS The mean arterial pressure values in the TP50 group were higher than those in the epinephrine group at T10 (165 vs. 112 mmHg), T20 (160 vs. 82 mmHg), T30 (143 vs. 66 mmHg), T45 (119 vs. 67 mmHg) and T60 (96 vs. 66.8 mmHg). The blood lactate level was lower in the naloxone group than in the epinephrine group at T10 (5.15 vs. 10.5 mmol/L), T30 (2.57 vs. 5.24 mmol/L) and T60 (2.1 vs. 4.1 mmol/L). CONCLUSIONS In this rat model of asphyxia-induced cardiac arrest, terlipressin and naloxone were effective vasopressors in cardiopulmonary resuscitation and presented better metabolic profiles than epinephrine. Terlipressin provided better hemodynamic stability than epinephrine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herlon S Martins
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Department of Emergency Medicine, Research Laboratory, São PauloSP, Brazil
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Naloxone in cardiac arrest with suspected opioid overdoses. Resuscitation 2010; 81:42-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2009] [Revised: 09/08/2009] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Chevillard L, Mégarbane B, Risède P, Baud FJ. Characteristics and comparative severity of respiratory response to toxic doses of fentanyl, methadone, morphine, and buprenorphine in rats. Toxicol Lett 2009; 191:327-40. [PMID: 19819313 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2009] [Revised: 09/29/2009] [Accepted: 09/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Opioids are known to induce respiratory depression. We aimed to characterize in rats the effects of four opioids on arterial blood gases and plethysmography after intraperitoneal administration at 80% of their LD(50) in order to identify opioid molecule-specific patterns and classify response severity. Opioid-receptor (OR) antagonists, including intravenous 10 mg kg(-1)-naloxonazine at 5 min [mu-OR antagonist], subcutaneous 30 mg kg(-1)-naloxonazine at 24 h [mu1-OR antagonist], subcutaneous 3 mg kg(-1)-naltrindole at 45 min [delta-OR antagonist], and subcutaneous 5 mg kg(-1)-Nor-binaltorphimine at 6 h [kappa-OR antagonist] were pre-administered to test the role of each OR. Methadone, morphine, and fentanyl significantly decreased PaO(2) (P<0.001) and increased PaCO(2) (P<0.05), while buprenorphine only decreased PaO(2) (P<0.05). While all opioids significantly increased inspiratory time (T(I), P<0.001), methadone and fentanyl also increased expiratory time (T(E), P<0.05). Intravenous 10 mg kg(-1)-naloxonazine at 5 min completely reversed opioid-related effects on PaO(2) (P<0.05), PaCO(2) (P<0.001), T(I) (P<0.05), and T(E) (P<0.01) except in buprenorphine. Subcutaneous 30 mg kg(-1)-naloxonazine at 24 h completely reversed effects on PaCO(2) (P<0.01) and T(E) (P<0.001), partially reversed effects on T(I) (P<0.001), and did not reverse effects on PaO(2). Naltrindole reversed methadone-induced T(E) increases (P<0.01) but worsened fentanyl's effect on PaCO(2) (P<0.05) and T(I) (P<0.05). Nor-binaltorphimine reversed morphine- and buprenorphine-induced T(I) increases (P<0.001) but worsened methadone's effect on PaO(2) (P<0.05) and morphine (P<0.001) and buprenorphine's (P<0.01) effects on pH. In conclusion, opioid-related respiratory patterns are not uniform. Opioid-induced hypoxemia as well as increases in T(I) and T(E) are caused by mu-OR, while delta and kappa-OR roles appear limited, depending on the specific opioid. Regarding severity of opioid-induced respiratory effects at 80% of their LD(50), all drugs increased T(I). Methadone and fentanyl induced hypoxemia, hypercapnia, and T(E) increases, morphine caused both hypoxemia and hypercapnia while buprenorphine caused only hypoxemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Chevillard
- Université Paris-Descartes, Faculté de Pharmacie, Neuropsychopharmacologie des addictions, CNRS, UMR7157, 75010 Paris, France
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Should naloxone be prescribed in the ED management of patients with cardiac arrest? A case report and review of literature. Am J Emerg Med 2008; 26:113.e5-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2007.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2007] [Accepted: 06/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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. HE, . KAG, . MM, . HZ, . VS, . NAG. The Effects of Morphine on Cerebral Blood Flow and its Neuroprotective or Cell Damage Before and after Brain Ischemia Reperfusion in Rabbits. INT J PHARMACOL 2006. [DOI: 10.3923/ijp.2006.613.617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
This review covers beta-phenylethylamines and isoquinoline alkaloids and compounds derived from them, including further products of oxidation, condensation with formaldehyde and rearrangement, some of which do not contain an isoquinoline system, together with naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids, which have a different biogenetic origin. The occurrence of the alkaloids, with the structures of new bases, together with their reactions, syntheses and biological activities are reported. The literature from July 2001 to June 2002 is reviewed, with 581 references cited.
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Abstract
This paper is the twenty-fourth installment of the annual review of research concerning the opiate system. It summarizes papers published during 2001 that studied the behavioral effects of the opiate peptides and antagonists. The particular topics covered this year include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology(Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, CUNY, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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