The Effect of epsilon-aminocaproic acid on perioperative blood loss in patients with idiopathic scoliosis undergoing posterior spinal fusion: a preliminary prospective study

Efficacy and utility of antifibrinolytics in pediatric spine surgery: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

Antifibrinolytics have gained increasing attention in minimizing blood loss and mitigating the risks associated with massive transfusions, including infection and coagulopathy in pediatric patients undergoing spine surgery. Nevertheless, the selection of optimal agent is still a matter of debate. We aim to review the utility of these agents and compare the efficacy of antifibrinolytics in pediatric and adolescent spine surgeries. A comprehensive search was performed in Scopus, Web of Science, and MEDLINE databases for relevant works. Studies providing quantitative data on predefined outcomes were included. Primary outcome was perioperative bleeding between the groups. Secondary outcomes included transfusion volume, rate of complications, and operation time. Twenty-eight studies were included in the meta-analysis incorporating 2553 patients. The use of Tranexamic acid (RoM: 0.71, 95%CI: [0.62-0.81], p < 0.001, I2 = 88%), Aprotinin (RoM: 0.54, 95%CI: [0.46-0.64], p < 0.001, I2 = 0%), and Epsilon-aminocaproic acid (RoM: 0.71, 95%CI: [0.62-0.81], p < 0.001, I2 = 60%) led to a 29%, 46%, and 29% reduction in perioperative blood loss, respectively. Network meta-analysis revealed higher probability of efficacy with Tranexamic acid compared to Epsilon-aminocaproic acid (P score: 0.924 vs. 0.571). The rate of complications was not statistically different between each two antifibrinolytic agent or antifibrinolytics compared to placebo or standard of care. Our network meta-analysis suggests a superior efficacy of all antifibrinolytics compared to standard of care/placebo in reducing blood loss and transfusion rate. Further adequately-powered randomized clinical trials are recommended to reach definite conclusion on comparative performance of these agents and to also provide robust objective assessments and standardized outcome data and safety profile on antifibrinolytics in pediatric and adolescent pediatric surgeries.

Plasma Technology Reduces Blood Loss in Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis Surgery: A Prospective Randomized Clinical Trial

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective randomized clinical trial.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of PEAK Plasmablade (PPB), compared with bipolar sealer and standard electrocautery, in the posterior spinal instrumentation and fusion (PSF) surgery performed for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS).

METHODS

Ninety-three patients undergoing PSF surgery for AIS were randomized in 2 groups: group-A patients (n = 45) underwent PSF surgery using PPB; group-B patients (n = 48) were treated with bipolar sealer and standard electrocautery. Demographic and surgical data was recorded. All the patients underwent serial blood tests on the day before surgery (T0) and at 24 (T1), 48 (T2), 72 (T3), and 96 (T4) hours postoperatively. Visual analogue scale for pain (VAS) score, the percentage of paracetamol assumption, and the blood transfusion rate were recorded in the time-lapse T1 to T4. Intergroup variability was assessed. Pearson correlation test was performed. A P value <.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

In group A, a significantly shorter total operative time (P = .0087), a significantly lower total intraoperative blood loss (TBL) (P = .001), and a higher postoperative hemoglobin (Hb) (P = .01) were recorded. A significant higher mean Hb concentration and mean albumin value was recorded in group A at 24 and 48 hours postoperatively. A significant correlation between TBL and hospital stay was recorded in both groups (group A, P = .00 001; group B, P = .00 006); moreover, in both groups, a significant correlation was observed between TBL and mean VAS at 72 hours postoperatively (group A, P = .0009; group B, P = .0001) and at 96 hours postoperatively (group A, P = .000 044; group B, P = .00 001).

CONCLUSIONS

PPB reduces the intraoperative blood loss in PSF performed for AIS, thus allowing a patient's faster recovery.

Efficacy of antifibrinolytics in reducing blood loss during hip reconstruction surgery in cerebral palsy children. A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Cerebral palsy (CP) children undergoing hip reconstruction are more prone to blood loss during surgery due to poor nutritional status, antiepileptic medication intake, depletion of clotting factors, and the extent of surgery involved. We conducted this present review to analyze whether antifibrinolytics during hip surgery in CP children would reduce surgical blood loss and transfusion requirements.

METHODS

Three databases (PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane library) were searched independently for publications mentioning the use of antifibrinolytics during hip reconstruction surgery in CP children. The primary outcome was to compare the surgical blood loss with and without antifibrinolytics use. Secondary outcomes were transfusion requirements, drop in hemoglobin level, length of hospital stay, and complication rates.

RESULTS

All five studies (reporting 478 patients) published on this topic were found eligible based on inclusion criteria and were included for final analysis. Primary outcome: In three of the included studies, antifibrinolytics use resulted in a significant reduction in total blood loss with a mean difference (MD) of -151.05 mL (95% CI -272.30 to -29.80, p = 0.01). In the other two studies although statistically not significant, antifibrinolytics use reduces estimated blood loss (MD: 3.27, 95% CI -21.44 to 14.91, p = 0.72). Secondary outcomes: We observed that in the antifibrinolytics group, there was a reduction in total blood transfusion requirements (OD: 0.70, 95% CI 0.35 to 1.37, p = 0.29), and a drop in haemoglobin level (MD: 0.16, 95% CI -0.62 to 0.30, p = 0.49) but statistically not significant. No adverse effects related directly to antifibrinolytics were noticed in all five studies.

CONCLUSION

Only two out of five included studies favored the use of antifibrinolytics in CP children undergoing hip reconstruction. The evidence synthesized on this meta-analysis is also not sufficient enough to support its routine use in this cohort of children for hip reconstruction surgery. High-quality studies with adequate sample size to determine the effective and safe dosage, timing, and cost involved of different antifibrinolytics are the need of the hour.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Ⅲ.

Perioperative Optimization of Patients With Neuromuscular Disorders Undergoing Scoliosis Corrective Surgery: A Multidisciplinary Team Approach

STUDY DESIGN

Narrative review.

OBJECTIVE

The high rate of complications associated with the surgical management of neuromuscular spinal deformities is well documented in the literature. This is attributed to attenuated protective physiological responses in multiple organ systems.

METHODS

Review and synthesis of the literature pertaining to optimization of patients with neuromuscular scoliosis undergoing surgery. Our institutional practice in the perioperative assessment and management of neuromuscular scoliosis is also described along with a clinical vignette.

RESULTS

Respiratory complications are the most common to occur following surgery for neuromuscular disorders. Other categories include gastrointestinal, cardiac, genitourinary, blood loss, and wound complications. A multidisciplinary approach is required for perioperative optimization of these patients and numerous strategies are described, including respiratory management.

CONCLUSION

Perioperative optimization for patients with neuromuscular disorders undergoing corrective surgery for spinal deformity is multifaceted and complex. It requires a multidisciplinary evidence-based approach. Preadmission of patients in advance of surgery for assessment and optimization may be required in certain instances to identify key concerns and formulate a tailored treatment plan.

Predictive factors for intraoperative blood loss in surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis

Background

Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) is a common spinal deformity. Posterior spinal fusion remains an important surgical treatment for AIS. This study aims to determine the predictive factors for intraoperative blood loss in AIS surgery.

Methods

Patients who had undergone posterior spinal fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in a single university hospital were reviewed over a 7-year period. Predictive factors for intra-operative blood loss were studied by multivariate analysis to derive a regression model. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to determine the cut-off values of factors contributing to significant intraoperative blood loss (≥500 ml).

Results

Two hundred and twelve patients were included. Intraoperative blood loss was found to be correlated with gender (r_s = 0.30 (0.17–0.43)), preoperative hemoglobin level (r_s = 0.20 (0.04–0.31)), preoperative Cobb angle (r_s = 0.20 (0.02–0.29)), number of fused levels (r_s = 0.46 (0.34–0.58)), operation duration (r_s = 0.65 (0.54–0.75)), number of anchors (r_s = 0.47 (0.35–0.59)), and p-value ranged from < 0.001 to < 0.05. Significant intraoperative blood loss was influenced by the male gender, operation duration greater than 257.5 min and more than 10 anchors used.

Conclusions

Male gender, increased operation duration and higher number of anchors predicted higher intra-operative blood loss.

Comparison of Blood-Conserving and Allogenic Transfusion-Sparing Effects of Antifibrinolytics in Scoliosis Correction Surgery

Background:

Intraoperative antifibrinolytic drug administration is a safe and effective method of reducing blood loss and allogenic transfusions in patients undergoing spine deformity correction.

Aim:

This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of two antifibrinolytic drugs tranexamic acid (TXA) and epsilon amino caproic acid (EACA) in reducing peri-operative blood loss and transfusion requirements against a placebo control in patients with idiopathic scoliosis undergoing correction surgery.

Setting and Design:

This is a prospective, randomized, double-blinded, controlled comparative study.

Methodology:

Patients in TXA group received 50 mg.kg⁻¹ bolus and 10 mg.kg⁻¹.h⁻¹ infusion as against 100 mg.kg⁻¹ and 10 mg.kg⁻¹.h⁻¹ infusion in EACA group. The placebo group had saline bolus and infusion. Parameters observed included baseline demographic and deformity data, duration of surgery, total peri-operative blood loss, and allogenic packed red cell transfusion requirements.

Statistical Analysis:

Mean and standard deviation were used to represent the quantitative continuous data, and percentage was used to represent categorical data. The Student's t-test and ANOVA were used to compare means between groups. Bonferroni's multiple comparison test was used to find out the association between categorical variables.

Results:

A total of 36 patients were enrolled with 12 patients in each group. Peri-operative blood loss was 50.1% lower in patients receiving TXA and 17.7% lower in patients receiving EACA compared with the placebo group. The volume of total packed red cell transfusion was 66.7% lower in patients receiving TXA and 45.6% lower in patients receiving EACA compared with placebo.

Conclusion:

TXA was more effective in reducing total peri-operative blood loss and allogenic transfusion requirement in idiopathic scoliosis correction surgery compared to EACA.

Effect of Intravenous Aminocaproid Acid on Blood Loss and Transfusion Requirements After Bilateral Varus Rotational Osteotomy: A Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Randomized Trial

BACKGROUND

ε-Aminocaproic acid (EACA) is an antifibrinolytic agent that has been shown to decrease blood loss and transfusion requirements in several populations undergoing various surgical procedures. However, the efficacy of EACA has not been assessed in pediatric patients with cerebral palsy undergoing bilateral varus rotational femoral osteotomies. The purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of intravenous EACA in reducing calculated intraoperative blood loss and transfusions in this population.

METHODS

Patients aged 18 years or younger were eligible. Patients were randomized to receive EACA or placebo (saline), and randomization was stratified based on sex and whether or not additional soft tissue or osseous procedures were performed. On the basis of retrospective data, the calculated sample size was 12 patients per arm to detect a difference of 250-mL blood loss. The primary outcome was calculated intraoperative blood loss. Secondary outcomes included transfusion requirements, 24-hour drain output, length of stay, and incidence of complications.

RESULTS

The mean age of patients in this study was 8 years (SD: 2.4 y). There were no differences in age, sex, height, weight, type of anesthesia, operative time, and associated procedures between the EACA and placebo groups (P>0.05). Preoperative hematocrit was lower in the EACA group (37.1 vs. 40.0, P=0.04). Calculated intraoperative blood loss was 536 mL in the EACA group and 628 mL in the placebo group (P=0.45). Transfusions were required in 62% of patients in the EACA group and 67% of patients in the placebo group (P=0.68). Total 24-hour drain output was 72.5 mL in the EACA group and 103.3 mL in the placebo group (P=0.37). Length of stay was similar between both groups, and there were no drug or placebo-related complications in either group.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no difference in blood loss or transfusion requirements associated with EACA compared with placebo; however, this study is underpowered to detect smaller differences in blood loss. Additional studies with larger sample sizes are needed to confirm these findings and further elucidate the indications for antifibrinolytic agents in pediatric patients.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level I.

Impact of multidisciplinary engagement in a quality improvement blood conservation protocol for craniosynostosis

OBJECTIVE

Patients undergoing open cranial vault remodeling for craniosynostosis frequently experience substantial blood loss requiring blood transfusion. Multiple reports in the literature have evaluated the impact of individual blood conservation techniques on blood transfusion rates during craniosynostosis surgery. The authors engaged a multidisciplinary team and assessed the impact of input from multiple stakeholders on the evolution of a comprehensive quality improvement protocol aimed at reducing or eliminating blood transfusion in patients undergoing open surgery for craniosynostosis.

METHODS

Over a 4-year period from 2012 to 2016, 39 nonsyndromic patients were operated on by a single craniofacial plastic surgeon. Initially, no clear blood conservation protocol existed, and specific interventions were individually driven. In 2014, a new pediatric neurosurgeon joined the craniofacial team, and additional stakeholders in anesthesiology, transfusion medicine, critical care, and hematology were brought together to evaluate opportunities for developing a comprehensive blood conservation protocol. The initial version of the protocol involved the standardized administration of intraoperative aminocaproic acid (ACA) and the use of a cell saver. In the second version of the protocol, the team implemented the preoperative use of erythropoietin (EPO). In addition, intraoperative and postoperative resuscitation and transfusion guidelines were more clearly defined. The primary outcomes of estimated blood loss (EBL), transfusion rate, and intraoperative transfusion volume were analyzed. The secondary impact of multidisciplinary stakeholder input was inferred by trends in the data obtained with the implementation of the partial and full protocols.

RESULTS

Implementing the full quality improvement protocol resulted in a 66% transfusion-free rate at the time of discharge compared to 0% without any conservation protocol and 27% with the intermediate protocol. The administration of EPO significantly increased starting hemoglobin/hematocrit (11.1 g/dl/31.8% to 14.7 g/dl/45.6%, p < 0.05). The group of patients receiving ACA had lower intraoperative EBL than those not receiving ACA, and trends in the final-protocol cohort, which had received both preoperative EPO and intraoperative ACA, demonstrated decreasing transfusion volumes, though the decrease did not reach statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients undergoing open calvarial vault remodeling procedures benefit from the input of a multidisciplinary stakeholder group in blood conservation protocols. Further research into comprehensive protocols for blood conservation may benefit from input from the full surgical team (plastic surgery, neurosurgery, anesthesiology) as well as additional pediatric subspecialty stakeholders including transfusion medicine, critical care, and hematology.

Safety and Effectiveness of Antifibrinolytics in Posterior Scoliosis Surgery for Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis: An Analysis of the NSQIP-Pediatric Database

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective study of prospectively collected data.

OBJECTIVE

To utilize a large national database with prospectively collected data [National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Pediatric (NSQIP-Pediatric)] to study the safety and effectiveness of antifibrinolytic use during multilevel posterior spinal fusion (PSF) for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS).

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

There is currently a lack of consensus and evidence regarding the safety and effectiveness of antifibrinolytic use for pediatric patients undergoing corrective surgery for AIS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients who underwent multilevel PSF for AIS in the 2016 NSQIP-Pediatric database were identified. Preoperative and procedural characteristics were compared between patients who received antifibrinolytics versus those who did not. Multivariate regressions were used to compare perioperative transfusion rates and postoperative outcomes, such as rate of return to the operating room, 30-day readmission, and intensive care unit and hospital length of stay between the 2 treatment groups.

RESULTS

This study included 975 patients who received antifibrinolytics and 223 patients who did not. Patients who received these agents tended to have more levels fused, osteotomies performed, and longer operative times. After controlling for these variances, there were no statistical differences in rate and volume of transfusion, rate of return to the operating room, 30-day readmission, 30-day postoperative complications, or intensive care unit or hospital length of stay between the 2 treatment groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study did not demonstrate transfusion reduction in the group that received antifibrinolytics. This finding may be, in part, secondary to nonoptimized or nonstandardized protocols for antifibrinolytic use in pediatric deformity surgery or the inability to adequately control for selection bias, as those with greater surgical invasiveness may be more likely to receive antifibrinolytics. Nonetheless, using antifibrinolytics in this population appears safe and not associated with increased perioperative complications.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Efficacy of antifibrinolytics in pediatric orthopedic surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Antifibrinolytics (AFs) stabilize blood clot formation and reduce bleeding. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to determine the impact of AF use on intraoperative blood loss and the need for blood transfusion in pediatric orthopedic surgery. A systematic review was performed using Medline and Embase to identify studies that utilized AFs during pediatric orthopedic surgery. The primary outcome measure was intraoperative blood loss in ml. Secondary outcomes included blood transfusion and thromboembolic events. Pooled estimates were derived from a random-effects model. Heterogeneity was assessed using the Cochrane Q and I statistic. Meta-regression assessed if age or study quality modified the effect of AFs on blood loss. Publication bias was assessed using a funnel plot, Egger regression analysis, and the Kendall τ-test. Twenty studies, with a total of 1356 patients, were included. The mean difference in intraoperative blood loss was 653 ml [95% confidence interval (CI): 464-842 ml, P < 0.001]. Similarly, the mean difference in percent of blood volume lost was 22% less in patients treated with AFs compared with controls (95% CI: 12-32, P < 0.001). Patients treated with AFs had a lower odds of transfusion compared to controls (OR: 0.324; 95% CI: 0.105-0.997, P = 0.049). The use of AF in pediatric orthopedic surgery results in decreased intraoperative blood loss and a lower risk of blood transfusion. The majority of studies included involve spine surgery; the benefits of AFs in extremity surgery in the pediatric population have yet to be delineated. Level of Evidence: Level II.

Pharmacologic Hemostatic Agents in Total Joint Arthroplasty-A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

BACKGROUND

Total knee and hip arthroplasties can be associated with substantial blood loss, affecting morbidity and even mortality. Two pharmacological antifibrinolytics, ε-aminocaproic acid (EACA) and tranexamic acid (TXA) have been used to minimize perioperative blood loss, but both have associated morbidity. Given the added cost of these medications and the risks associated with then, a cost-effectiveness analysis was undertaken to ascertain the best strategy.

METHODS

A cost-effectiveness model was constructed using the payoffs of cost (in United States dollars) and effectiveness (quality-adjusted life expectancy, in days). The medical literature was used to ascertain various complications, their probabilities, utility values, and direct medical costs associated with various health states. A time horizon of 10 years and a willingness to pay threshold of $100,000 was used.

RESULTS

The total cost and effectiveness (quality-adjusted life expectancy, in days) was $459.77, $951.22, and $1174.87 and 3411.19, 3248.02, and 3342.69 for TXA, no pharmacologic hemostatic agent, and EACA, respectively. Because TXA is less expensive and more effective than the competing alternatives, it was the favored strategy. One-way sensitivity analyses for probability of transfusion and myocardial infarction for all 3 strategies revealed that TXA remains the dominant strategy across all clinically plausible values.

CONCLUSION

TXA, when compared with no pharmacologic hemostatic agent and with EACA, is the most cost-effective strategy to minimize intraoperative blood loss in hip and knee total joint arthroplasties. These findings are robust to sensitivity analyses using clinically plausible probabilities.

Effect of intraoperative autologous transfusion techniques on perioperative hemoglobin level in idiopathic scoliosis patients undergoing posterior spinal fusion: A prospective randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Massive blood loss during posterior spinal fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis remains a significant risk for patients. There is no consensus on the benefit of acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH) or intraoperative cell salvage (ICS) in scoliosis surgery.

METHODS

Patients were randomized to one of two groups. Group A received ANH and ICS during operation, while group B received only ICS. Patients' age, sex, height, weight, body blood volume, number of fusion level, Cobb angle, number of screws, duration of surgery, and skin incision length were recorded. Hemoglobin and hematocrit levels were obtained preoperatively and postoperatively (0 h and 24 h).

RESULTS

There were 22 patients in each group. There was no significant difference in total blood loss. The perioperative decrease in hemoglobin levels between preoperation and postoperation 24 h (group A 2.79 ± 1.15 and group B 2.76 ± 1.00) showed no significant difference ( p = 0.93). Group A observed a larger decrease in hemoglobin levels at postoperative 0 h relative to preoperative level (2.57 ± 0.82 g/dl), followed by a smaller decrease within the next 24 h (0.22 ± 1.33 g/dl). Group B showed a continued drop in hemoglobin levels of similar magnitude at postoperation 0 h (1.60 ± 0.67 g/dl) and within the next 24 h (1.16 ± 0.78 g/dl). One patient from group B received 1 unit of allogenic blood transfusion ( p = 0.33).

CONCLUSIONS

The addition of ANH to ICS in posterior spinal fusion surgery for AIS resulted in a similar decrease in hemoglobin levels between preoperative values and at 24 h postoperatively.

Bipolar Sealer Devices Used in Posterior Spinal Fusion for Neuromuscular Scoliosis Reduce Blood Loss and Transfusion Requirements

BACKGROUND

Reducing perioperative blood loss and the need for transfusions in patients undergoing spinal surgery is especially important for those with neuromuscular disorders. These patients require extensive spino-pelvic exposure and are often medically fragile. We have used Amicar to decrease blood loss since 2001. As an effort to further reduce blood loss and transfusions, we use a bipolar sealer device (Aquamantys) as an adjunct to electrocautery. We present the results of our first 64 neuromuscular patients to show the efficacy of the device.

METHODS

Using a prospectively maintained database we reviewed the operative time, estimated perioperative blood loss, cell saver use, and intraoperative and postoperative transfusion rate in patients who underwent posterior spinal fusion for neuromuscular scoliosis. Sixty-four patients were identified who fit these criteria since the use of the bipolar sealer device was instituted.We compared these patients with a control group of the preceding 65 patients in whom this device was not used for hemostasis. All patients, including those in the study group, received Amicar (infusion of 100 mg/kg over 15 to 20 min, then 10 mg/kg/h throughout the remainder of the procedure). The surgical technique did not differ between the 2 groups.

RESULTS

Baseline characteristics between the 2 groups were similar except for the number of patients having an all-screw construct which was larger in the investigational group (25% vs. 8%, P=0.03). There were no significant differences in operative time or duration of hospital stay. Intraoperative blood loss was lower in the study group (741 mL) as compared with the control group (1052 mL, P=0.003). Total perioperative blood loss, however, showed no significant difference. Thirty-five (55%) patients in the study group and 50 (77%) patients in the control group required additional intraoperative or postoperative transfusions (P=0.01). The number of packed red cell units transfused per patient was 0.81 in the study group and 1.57 in the control group (P=0.001). Although the intraoperative cell saver transfusion was same, the total blood volume transfused, which includes cell saver and any other transfusions, was significantly lower in the study group, 425 mL versus 671 mL (P=0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

Use of a bipolar sealer device in posterior spinal fusion for neuromuscular scoliosis significantly reduced intraoperative blood loss and transfusion rate when compared with a control group in this retrospective review.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III-retrospective comparative study.

Management of Scoliosis in Patients With Loeys-Dietz Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) is a genetic connective tissue disorder. We sought to determine the incidence of scoliosis in patients with LDS, characterize the spectrum of spinal deformity, determine the results of bracing and surgery, and define surgical complications.

METHODS

Patients were selected from our institution's database of 183 patients with LDS. Imaging measurements were performed for 141 patients whose records permitted spinal evaluation. Deformity changes and complications after intervention were recorded for patients who underwent bracing or surgery, and associations were tested using Student t tests (significance, P<0.05).

RESULTS

Eighty-eight of 141 (62%) patients with LDS had scoliosis, with main thoracic and thoracolumbar curves being most common. Fifteen patients were braced (mean age, 9±3 y) for a mean of 2.3 years. They had a mean postbracing curve progression of 12±21 degrees (5±9 deg./y). There were no significant differences in age, sex, curve type, or prebracing curve magnitude between successfully braced (n=4) and unsuccessfully braced (n=11) patients (P>0.05). Nine patients, (mean age, 12±3 y), underwent 24 surgical procedures (16 growing rod procedures, 8 fusions). Mean curve corrections were 61% for growing rods and 73% for fusions. Associated blood loss for these procedures was 400 mL and 1293 mL, respectively, and normalized blood loss for fusion was 2.34 mL/kg/level. Fifteen of 24 surgical procedures involved complications (63%), including cerebrospinal fluid leaks (n=7) and blood loss >20% of estimated total blood volume (n=11).

CONCLUSIONS

Scoliosis was present in 62% of our sample of LDS patients. Bracing did not halt curves in 11 of 15 patients, whose curves progressed >5 degrees or to >50 degrees by completion of bracing. At latest follow-up, 47% of the braced patients had undergone surgery after prior bracing attempts. The high blood loss associated with these operations is believed to be related to vascular fragility in patients with LDS.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV-retrospective cohort study.

Comparison of harmonic blade versus traditional approach in canine patients undergoing spinal decompressive surgery for naturally occurring thoracolumbar disk extrusion

Objectives

To assess feasibility of the harmonic Osteovue blade (HOB) for use in the soft tissue approach for dogs undergoing hemilaminectomy and to compare outcomes between dogs undergoing HOB or traditional approach (TRAD).

Methods

A prospective randomized clinical trial was performed using 20 client-owned dogs with thoracolumbar intervertebral disk extrusion requiring hemilaminectomy. Dogs were randomly assigned to HOB or TRAD. Neurologic function and pain scores were assessed pre-operatively. Intraoperative blood loss and surgical approach time as well as postoperative pain and wound healing scores were recorded. Additionally, neurologic recovery and owner perceived quality of life were recorded at day 10 and 30 postoperative.

Results

There was no significant difference in sex distribution, weight, age, preoperative neurological grade and pain score, and perioperative outcome measures between groups. Intraoperative total blood loss was minimal for HOB and TRAD (median: 0 ml (range 0–9) and 2.2 ml (range 0–6.8), respectively; p = 0.165) and approach times were similar (median: 7 min (range 5–12) and 8 min (range 5–13), respectively; p = 0.315). While changes in wound healing scores were similar, changes in postoperative pain scores and neurological function were significantly improved in the HOB compared to the TRAD group. Postoperative complications in the HOB group consisted of automutilation of part of the incision and development of a small soft, non-painful subcutaneous swelling in 1 dog each.

Conclusions

The HOB is a safe and effective tool for the soft tissue approach for routine spinal surgery in dogs and is associated with decreased pain and increased neurological function post-surgery.

Does a dual attending surgeon strategy confer additional benefit for posterior selective thoracic fusion in Lenke 1 and 2 adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS)? A prospective propensity matching score analysis

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

With an increased cost of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) surgery over the past 10 years, improvement of patient safety and optimization of the surgical management of AIS has become an important need. A dual attending surgeon strategy resulted in reduction of blood loss and complication rate.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the perioperative outcome of posterior selective thoracic fusion in Lenke 1 and 2 AIS patients comparing a single versus a dual attending surgeon strategy.

STUDY DESIGN

A prospective cohort study was carried out.

PATIENT SAMPLE

The study sample comprised 60 patients OUTCOME MEASURE: Operative duration, blood loss, postoperative hemoglobin, need for transfusion, morphine usage, and duration of hospital stay were the outcome measures.

METHODS

A total of 116 patients who underwent posterior selective thoracic fusion from two centers were prospectively recruited. The patients were grouped into Group 1 (single surgeon) and Group 2 (two surgeons). One-to-one matching analysis using "propensity score-matched cohort patient sampling method" was done for age, gender, height, weight, preoperative Cobb angle, number of fusion level, and Lenke classification. The outcome measures included operative duration, blood loss, postoperative hemoglobin, need for transfusion, morphine usage, and duration of hospital stay. This study was self-funded with no conflict of interest.

RESULTS

From 86 patients who were operated by the two surgeons (Group 2), 30 patients were matched with 30 patients who were operated by a single surgeon (Group 1). Group 2 (164.0±25.7 min) has a significantly shorter operation duration (p=.000) compared with Group 1 (257.3±51.4 min). The total blood loss was significantly more (p=.009) in Group 1 (1254.7±521.5 mL) compared with Group 2 (893.7±518.4 mL). There were seven patients (23.3%) in Group 1 who received allogenic blood transfusion (p<.05). The morphine usage and average hospital stay were significantly lower in Group 2, 22.4±10.7 mg and 3.4±0.7 days, respectively (p<.05). In Group 1, there was one patient who developed a superficial wound infection. No other major complications were noted.

CONCLUSIONS

A dual attending surgeon strategy was superior to a single surgeon strategy in posterior selective thoracic fusion in Lenke 1 and 2 AIS patients and will lead to a faster operation, reduced intraoperative blood loss, reduced risk of allogenic transfusion, reduced morphine requirement, and shorter hospital stay.

Antifibrinolytic agents for reducing blood loss in scoliosis surgery in children

BACKGROUND

This is an updated version of the original Cochrane review first published in 2008. Scoliosis surgery is often associated with substantial blood loss and potentially detrimental effects in children. Antifibrinolytic agents are often used to reduce perioperative blood loss. Clinical trials have evaluated their efficacy in children undergoing surgical correction of scoliosis, but no systematic review has been published. This review was first published in 2008 and was updated in 2016.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of aprotinin, tranexamic acid and aminocaproic acid in reducing blood loss and transfusion requirements in children undergoing surgery for correction of idiopathic or secondary scoliosis.

SEARCH METHODS

We ran the search for the previous review in June 2007. For this updated version, we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; 2015, Issue 7), MEDLINE (1946 to August week 1 2015), Embase (1947 to 2015 week 38), Latin American Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILACS) (1982 to 14 August 2015), Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE; 2015, Issue 2) and reference lists of reviews and retrieved articles for randomized controlled trials in any language. We also checked the clinical trial registry at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov on 8 October 2015.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included blinded and unblinded randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that evaluated the effects of antifibrinolytics on perioperative blood loss in children 18 years of age or younger and undergoing scoliosis surgery.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data. The primary outcome was total blood loss (intraoperative and postoperative combined). Secondary efficacy outcomes were the number of participants receiving blood transfusion (both autologous and allogeneic) or receiving allogeneic blood transfusion alone, and the total amount of blood transfused. Safety outcomes included the number of deaths, the number of participants reporting any adverse event or a serious adverse event, withdrawals due to adverse events and the number of participants experiencing a specific adverse event (i.e. renal insufficiency, hypersensitivity or thrombosis). We assessed methodological risk of bias for each included study and employed the GRADE approach to assess the overall quality of the evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

We included three new studies (201 participants) in this updated review, for a total of nine studies (455 participants). All but one study employed placebo as the control group intervention. For the primary outcome, antifibrinolytic drugs decreased the amount of perioperative blood loss by 427 mL (95% confidence interval (CI) 251 to 603 mL), for a reduction of over 20% versus placebo. We rated the quality of evidence for our primary outcome as low on the basis of unclear risk of bias for several domains in most studies and the small total number of participants.For secondary outcomes, fewer participants receiving antifibrinolytic drugs received transfusion (allogeneic or autologous) versus those receiving placebo (risk ratio (RR) 0.65, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.85, number needed to treat to prevent one additional harmful outcome (NNTp) 5; very low-quality evidence). Only two studies specifically evaluated the number of participants transfused with only allogeneic blood (risk difference (RD) -0.15, 95% CI -0.26 to -0.03, NNTp 7; very low-quality evidence). Antifibrinolytic drugs decreased the volume of blood transfused by 327 mL (95% CI -186 to -469 mL; low-quality evidence).No study reported deaths in active or control groups. Data were insufficient to allow performance of meta-analysis for any safety outcome. No studies adequately described their methods in assessing safety. The only adverse event of note occurred in one study, when three participants in the placebo group developed postoperative deep vein thrombosis.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Since the last published version of this review (2008), we have found three new studies. Additional evidence shows that antifibrinolytics reduce the requirement for both autologous and allogeneic blood transfusion. Limited evidence of low to very low quality supports the use of antifibrinolytic drugs for reducing blood loss and decreasing the risk, and volume, of transfusion in children undergoing scoliosis surgery. Evidence is insufficient to support the use of a particular agent, although tranexamic acid may be preferred, given its widespread availability. The optimal dose regimen for any of these three agents has not been established. Although adverse events appear to occur infrequently, evidence is insufficient to confirm the safety of these agents, particularly for rare but potentially catastrophic events. No long-term safety data are available.

Assessment of Intraoperative Blood Loss at Different Surgical Stages During Posterior Spinal Fusion Surgery in the Treatment of Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective clinical study.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the amount of blood loss at different stages of Posterior Instrumented Spinal Fusion (PSF) surgery in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) patients.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Knowing the pattern of blood loss at different surgical stages may enable the surgical team to formulate a management strategy to reduce intraoperative blood loss.

METHODS

One hundred AIS patients who underwent PSF from January 2013 to December 2014 were recruited. The operation was divided into six stages; stage 1-exposure, stage 2-screw insertion, stage 3-release, stage 4-correction, stage 5-corticotomies and bone grafting, and stage 6-closure. The duration and blood loss at each stage was documented. The following values were calculated: total blood loss, blood loss per estimated blood volume, blood loss per minute, blood loss per vertebral level fused, and blood loss per minute per vertebral level fused.

RESULTS

There were 89 females and 11 males. The mean age was 17.0 ± 5.8 years old. Majority (50.0%) were Lenke 1 curve type. The mean preoperative major Cobb angle was 64.9 ± 15.0°. The mean number of levels fused was 9.5 ± 2.3 levels. The mean operating time was 188.5 ± 53.4 minutes with a mean total blood loss 951.0 ± 454.0 mLs. The highest mean blood loss occurred at stage 2 (301.0 ± 196.7 mL), followed by stage 4 (226.8 ± 171.2 mL) and stage 5 (161.5 ± 146.6 mL). The highest mean blood loss per minute was at stage 5 (17.1 ± 18.3 mL/min), followed by stage 3 (12.0 ± 10.8 mL/min). The highest mean blood loss per vertebral levels fused was at stage 2 (31.0 ± 17.7 mL/level), followed by stage 4 (23.9 ± 18.1 mL/level) and stage 5 (16.6 ± 13.3 mL/level).

CONCLUSION

All stages were significant contributors to the total blood loss except exposure (stage 1) and closure (stage 6). Blood loss per minute and blood loss per minute per level was highest during corticotomies (stage 5), followed by release (stage 3). However, the largest amount of total blood loss occurred during screw insertion (stage 2).

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

2.

Use of Tranexamic Acid (TXA) on reducing blood loss during scoliosis surgery in Chinese adolescents

Background

Many reports had been received on the application of antifibrinolytic medications on spinal corrective surgery and the surgical outcome evaluations of its efficacy on reducing blood loss. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of tranexamic acid (TXA) in reducing operative blood loss during posterior spinal fusion for the treatment of severe adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS).

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was carried out on 90 (TXA = 55, Control = 35) AIS girls undergoing posterior spinal surgery. Patients in TXA group used TXA as an antifibrinolytic agent to reduce blood loss, while control group did not. Blood loss, haemoglobin change and amount of blood transfused was estimated from intraoperative measurement by anaesthesiologists. Demographics were compared using Student’s T-test or Chi-square test where appropriate. Linear regression modelling was carried out between the use of TXA and total blood loss with controlling of confounding factors.

Results

Mean age and mean maximum major curve were 15.2 and 73°, and 15.3 and 63° in TXA and control groups respectively. TXA group showed significantly less intra-operative blood loss than the control group from intraoperative measurement (1.8 L vs. 3.9 L, p < 0.01) and volume of cell saver blood transfused back to patients (0.6 L vs. 1.7 L, p < 0.01). TXA group also showed significantly shorter total time taken for surgery (437 min vs. 502 min, p < 0.01), and total blood loss per surgical segment level (0.1 L vs. 0.3 L, p < 0.01). Regression models showed that the use of TXA decreased total blood loss by 794.3 ml after adjusting for maximum major curve, age, number of segments fused, bone graft, clotting capability, and infusion of coagulation factors.

Conclusions

Patients undergoing posterior spinal corrective surgery with the use of TXA showed much reduced total blood loss, reduced use of transfused blood, much less cell saver blood transfused back to the patient. The total blood loss was decreased by after using TXA after controlling for maximum major curve, age, surgical parameters, clotting capability, and infusion of coagulation factors.

Efficacy and Safety of Antifibrinolytic Agents in Reducing Perioperative Blood Loss and Transfusion Requirements in Scoliosis Surgery: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Routine use of antifibrinolytic agents in spine surgery is still an issue of debate.

Objective

To gather scientific evidence for the efficacy and safety of antifibrinolytic agents including aprotinin, tranexamic acid (TXA) and epsilon aminocaproic acid (EACA, traditionally known as Amicar) in reducing perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements in scoliosis surgery.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis for randomized controlled trials (RCTs), retrospective case-control studies, and retrospective cohort studies on the use of antifibrinolytic agents in scoliosis surgery by searching in the MEDLINE and EMBASE databases and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and Controlled Trials of papers published from January 1980 through July 2014. Safety of the antifibrinolytic agents was evaluated in all included studies, while efficacy was evaluated in RCTs.

Results

Eighteen papers with a total of 1,158 patients were eligible for inclusion in this study. Among them, 8 RCTs with 450 patients were included for evaluation of pharmacologic efficacy (1 RCT was excluded because of a lack of standard deviation data). Mean blood loss was reduced in patients with perioperative use of antifibrinolytic agents by 409.25 ml intraoperatively (95% confidence interval [CI], 196.57–621.94 ml), 250.30 ml postoperatively (95% CI, 35.31–465.30), and 601.40 ml overall (95% CI, 306.64–896.16 ml). The mean volume of blood transfusion was reduced by 474.98 ml (95% CI, 195.30–754.67 ml). The transfusion rate was 44.6% (108/242) in the patients with antifibrinolytic agents and 68.3% (142/208) in the patients with placebo. (OR 0.38; 95% CI; 0.25–0.58; P<0.00001, I² = 9%). All studies were included for evaluation of safety, with a total of 8 adverse events reported overall (4 in the experimental group and 4 in the control group).

Conclusion

The systematic review and meta-analysis indicated that aprotinin, TXA, and EACA all significantly reduced perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements in scoliosis surgery. There was no evidence that the use of antifibrinolytic agents was a risk factor for adverse events, especially thromboembolism, in scoliosis surgery.

Population pharmacokinetics of ϵ-aminocaproic acid in adolescents undergoing posterior spinal fusion surgery

BACKGROUND

Despite demonstrated efficacy of ϵ-aminocaproic acid (EACA) in reducing blood loss in adolescents undergoing spinal fusion, there are no population-specific pharmacokinetic data to guide dosing. The aim of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of EACA in adolescents undergoing spinal fusion surgery and make dosing recommendations.

METHODS

Twenty children ages 12-17 years were enrolled, with 10 children in each of two groups based on diagnosis (idiopathic scoliosis or non-idiopathic scoliosis). Previously reported data from infants undergoing craniofacial surgery were included in the model to enable dosing recommendations over a wide range of weights, ages, and diagnoses. A population non-linear mixed effects modelling approach was used to characterize EACA pharmacokinetics.

RESULTS

Population pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated using a two-compartment disposition model with allometrically scaled weight and an age effect on clearance. Pharmacokinetic parameters for the typical patient were a plasma clearance of 153 ml min(-1) 70 kg(-1) (6.32 ml min(-1) kg(-0.75)), intercompartmental clearance of 200 ml min(-1) 70 kg(-1) (8.26 ml min(-1) kg(-0.75)), central volume of distribution of 8.78 litre 70 kg(-1) (0.13 litre kg(-1)), and peripheral volume of distribution of 15.8 litre 70 kg(-1) (0.23 litre kg(-1)). Scoliosis aetiology did not have a clinically significant effect on drug pharmacokinetics.

CONCLUSIONS

The following dosing schemes are recommended according to patient weight: weight <25 kg, 100 mg kg(-1) loading dose and 40 mg kg(-1) h(-1) infusion; weight ≤25 kg-<50 kg, 100 mg kg(-1) loading dose and 35 mg kg(-1) h(-1) infusion; and weight ≥50 kg, 100 mg kg(-1) loading dose and 30 mg kg(-1) h(-1) infusion. An efficacy trial employing this dosing strategy is warranted.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT01408823.

Blood loss during posterior spinal fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective uncontrolled case series.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine the association, if any, between intraoperative blood loss and need for transfusion with the use of periapical (Ponte) osteotomies, as well as other patient and surgical variables among patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) undergoing posterior spinal instrumentation and fusion.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Blood loss during posterior spinal fusion for AIS can be substantial. Numerous techniques are used to minimize intraoperative blood loss and the need for allogeneic transfusion. However, it is unclear which patient and surgeon variables affect blood loss most significantly.

METHODS

A review was conducted on consecutive patients with AIS who had undergone posterior spinal fusion from July 1997 to February 2013 by a single primary surgeon at 1 institution. The relationship of estimated blood loss, normalized blood loss (normalized blood loss = estimated blood loss/number of levels fused/patient's weight in kilograms), autologous blood retrieved, and allogeneic transfusion received with various patient- and procedure-related variables were analyzed.

RESULTS

Estimated blood loss, normalized blood loss, and autologous blood retrieved were higher in patients who underwent periapical Ponte osteotomies (n = 38) (P < 0.0001, P < 0.001, P < 0.01, respectively). The mean major curve correction was 64% in patients without osteotomies, and 65% in patients with osteotomies (P = 0.81). All patients who underwent osteotomies (38/38) received allogeneic transfusion versus 26% (19/73) of those without osteotomies (P < 0.001). The likelihood of transfusion correlated with increasing number of osteotomies and a lower preoperative hemoglobin level (odds ratio, 3.34; P = 0.003; and odds ratio, 0.51; P = 0.02, respectively).

CONCLUSION

In patients with AIS undergoing posterior spinal fusion with instrumentation, performing periapical osteotomies increased all measures of intraoperative blood loss and need for transfusion without substantially improving major curve correction. As expected, a lower preoperative hemoglobin level was observed in patients who received a blood transfusion after posterior instrumentation and fusion.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4.

Blood loss in spinal tumour surgery and surgery for metastatic spinal disease: a meta-analysis

There is currently no consensus about the mean volume of blood lost during spinal tumour surgery and surgery for metastatic spinal disease. We conducted a systematic review of papers published in the English language between 31 January 1992 and 31 January 2012. Only papers that clearly presented blood loss data in spinal surgery for metastatic disease were included. The random effects model was used to obtain the pooled estimate of mean blood loss. We selected 18 papers, including six case series, ten retrospective reviews and two prospective studies. Altogether, there were 760 patients who had undergone spinal tumour surgery and surgery for metastatic spinal disease. The pooled estimate of peri-operative blood loss was 2180 ml (95% confidence interval 1805 to 2554) with catastrophic blood loss as high as 5000 ml, which is rare. Aside from two studies that reported large amounts of mean blood loss (> 5500 ml), the resulting funnel plot suggested an absence of publication bias. This was confirmed by Egger's test, which did not show any small-study effects (p = 0.119). However, there was strong evidence of heterogeneity between studies (I(2) = 90%; p < 0.001). Spinal surgery for metastatic disease is associated with significant blood loss and the possibility of catastrophic blood loss. There is a need to establish standardised methods of calculating and reporting this blood loss. Analysis should include assessment by area of the spine, primary pathology and nature of surgery so that the amount of blood loss can be predicted. Consideration should be given to autotransfusion in these patients.

Postoperative spinal epidural hematoma (SEH): incidence, risk factors, onset, and management

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Spinal epidural hematoma (SEH) is a rare, yet potentially devastating complication of spinal surgery. There is limited evidence available regarding the risk factors and timing for development of symptomatic SEH after spinal surgery.

PURPOSE

To assess the incidence, risk factors, time of the onset, and effect of early evacuation of symptomatic SEH after spinal surgery.

STUDY DESIGN

Multicenter case control study.

PATIENT SAMPLE

All patients who underwent open spinal surgery between October 1, 1999, and September 30, 2006, at the National Hospital For Neurology and Neurosurgery (NHNN) and the Wellington Hospital (WH) were reviewed.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Frankel grade.

METHODS

Patients who developed SEH and underwent evacuation of the hematoma were identified. Two controls per case were selected. Each control had undergone a procedure with similar complexity, at the same section of the spine, at the same hospital, and under the same surgeon within 6 months of the initial operation.

RESULTS

A total of 4,568 open spinal operations were performed at NHNN and WH. After spinal surgery, 0.22% of patients developed symptomatic SEH. Alcohol greater than 10 units a week (p=.031), previous spinal surgery (p=.007), and multilevel procedures (p=.002) were shown to be risk factors. Initial symptoms of SEH presented after a median time of 2.7 hours (interquartile range [IQR], 1.1-126.1). Patients who had evacuation surgery within 6 hours of the onset of initial symptoms improved a median of 2 (IQR, 1.0-3.0) Frankel grades, and those who had surgery more than 6 hours after the onset of symptoms improved 1.0 (IQR, 0.0-1.5) Frankel grade, p=.379.

CONCLUSIONS

Symptomatic postoperative SEH is rare, occurring in 0.22% of cases. Alcohol consumption greater than 10 units a week, multilevel procedure, and previous spinal surgery were identified as risk factors for developing SEH. Spinal epidural hematoma often presents early in the postoperative period, highlighting the importance of close patient monitoring within the first 4 hours after surgery. This study suggests that earlier surgical intervention may result in greater neurological recovery.

Population pharmacokinetics of epsilon-aminocaproic acid in infants undergoing craniofacial reconstruction surgery

BACKGROUND

Understanding the clinical pharmacology of the antifibrinolytic epsilon-aminocaproic acid (EACA) is necessary for rational drug administration in children. The aim of this study is to determine the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of EACA in infants aged 6-24 months undergoing craniofacial reconstruction surgery.

METHODS

Cohorts of six infants were enrolled sequentially to one of the three escalating loading dose-continuous i.v. infusion (CIVI) regimens: 25 mg kg(-1), 10 mg kg(-1) h(-1); 50 mg kg(-1), 20 mg kg(-1) h(-1); 100 mg kg(-1), 40 mg kg(-1) h(-1). Plasma EACA concentrations were determined using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay. A population non-linear mixed effects modelling approach was used to characterize EACA PKs.

RESULTS

Population PK parameters of EACA were estimated using a two-compartment disposition model with weight expressed as an allometric covariate and an age effect. The typical patient in this study had an age of 38.71 weeks and a weight of 8.82 kg. PK parameters for this typical patient were: pre-/postoperative plasma drug clearance of 32 ml min(-1) (3.6 ml kg(-1) min(-1)), inter-compartmental clearance of 42.4 ml min(-1) (4.8 ml min(-1) kg(-1)), central volume of distribution of 1.27 litre (0.14 litre kg(-1)), and peripheral volume of distribution of 2.53 litre (0.29 litre kg(-1)). Intra-operative clearance and central volume of distribution were 89% and 80% of the pre-/postoperative value, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

EACA clearance increased with weight and age. The dependence of clearance on body weight supports weight-based dosing. Based on this study, a loading dose of 100 mg kg(-1) followed by a CIVI of 40 mg kg(-1) h(-1) is appropriate to maintain target plasma EACA concentrations in children aged 6-24 months undergoing these procedures.

A systematic review of the use of antifibrinolytic agents in pediatric surgery and implications for craniofacial use

A systematic review aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of aprotinin, epsilon-aminocaproic acid (EACA), and tranexamic acid (TXA) in reducing perioperative blood loss, risk for transfusion, and total perioperative transfusion volume in major pediatric surgery. Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Reviews were searched for relevant articles published from January 1990 to January 2012. Additional studies were identified by cross-referencing citations and extracting data from recent published reviews. Data were recorded and analyzed using Cochrane's RevMan5.1 software. Thirty-four studies were included in this review of which 21 provided level 1b evidence, 11 were level 2b, and two were level 3b. As compared to control groups, antifibrinolytics reduced perioperative blood loss by standardized mean difference (SMD) of -0.70 (-0.89, -0.50; p<0.00001), total transfusion volume by SMD of -0.78 (-0.95, -0.61; p < 0.00001), and Odds Ratio (OR) for transfusion was 0.39 (0.23, 0.64; p=0.002). The OR for adverse events attributable to treatment was not statistically significant across groups (OR = 0.96; p = 0.58). Antifibrinolytics are effective in reducing blood loss and transfusion requirements in major pediatric surgery. TXA and EACA also appear to have reasonable side-effect profiles. Application to craniofacial surgery is promising, though further investigation is necessary.

Antifibrinolytic agents reduce blood loss during pediatric vertebral column resection procedures

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective multicenter review.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of intraoperative antifibrinolytic (AF) agents on blood loss associated with vertebral column resection (VCR) procedures for pediatric patients.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

VCR procedures may be associated with substantial blood loss.

METHODS

A multicenter review of 147 patients (aged <21 yr) who underwent VCR as part of their spinal deformity correction was conducted. Estimated blood loss (EBL) was calculated as percentage of blood volume (BV) (EBL/BV × 100), which was normalized on the basis of the number of vertebral levels removed (%BV/level). The use of AF agents was noted (tranexamic acid [TXA], aminocaproic acid, aprotinin, none) and based on surgeons' choice. EBL was compared using analysis of covariance (controlling for deformity magnitude) (P < 0.05).

RESULTS

Average preoperative major deformity (kyphosis or scoliosis) was 97° ± 31°. The average number of levels excised was 1.6 (range, 1-5). Total EBL averaged 1317 mL (range, 50-6026 mL). Eleven patients were excluded: 7 with incomplete data and 4 who received aminocaproic acid (too few to compare). This resulted in 136 cases; 64 with no AF, 42 received TXA, and 30 received aprotinin. Overall %BV/level EBL was 41% ± 39% (range, 6%-162%) and was significantly higher in the no-AF group (52% ± 37%) than the TXA (30% ± 34%; P < 0.01) and aprotinin (32% ± 24%; P < 0.05) groups. The effect of the AFs varied by site.

CONCLUSION

EBL associated with VCR was highly variable and in many cases exceeded the patient's BV. AF agents were not routinely used and we had insufficient data to assess the efficacy of aminocaproic acid. Both aprotinin and TXA resulted in less EBL than when no AF was used; however, the effect of the reduction varied by site. Aprotinin has since been removed from the market. When normalized to patient size and levels excised, the use of TXA resulted in a reduction in intraoperative EBL.

Does patient diagnosis predict blood loss during posterior spinal fusion in children?

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective review.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the relationship between diagnosis and blood loss in children undergoing posterior spinal fusion surgery for deformity correction.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

To our knowledge, this relationship is not well established. It has important implications for understanding the mechanisms for blood loss and planning for surgery.

METHODS

Clinical records were reviewed for all patients 10 to 18 years of age who underwent spinal fusion surgery (at least 5 levels) by the senior author from 2001 through 2011. Patients were excluded for antifibrinolytic use, vertebral column resections, history of spinal surgery, nonpedicle screw instrumentation, cervical spine fusion, or anterior approaches. The 617 patients (with 37 diagnoses) were categorized into 5 groups: idiopathic scoliosis (IS), Scheuermann kyphosis (SK), cerebral palsy, other neuromuscular disorders, and genetic and syndromic disorders. Analysis of covariance was used to assess differences in blood loss across the diagnostic groups. Normalized blood loss (NBL) was calculated by dividing blood loss by number of levels fused and by patient's weight; NBL differences between groups were analyzed using Bonferroni correction method. Significance was set at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Blood loss differed significantly by diagnostic group, adjusting for extent of fusion and patient weight (P < 0.001). Patients with cerebral palsy had a significantly higher NBL than patients with IS (P < 0.001), SK (P < 0.001), other neuromuscular disorders (P = 0.049), or genetic and syndromic disorders (P = 0.006). Patients with other neuromuscular disorders had a significantly higher NBL than patients with IS (P < 0.001) or SK (P < 0.001). Patients with genetic and syndromic disorders also had a significantly higher NBL than patients with IS (P < 0.001) or SK (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

There is a significant relationship between patient diagnosis and blood loss during posterior spinal fusion surgery in children.

Complications in spinal deformity surgery: issues unrelated directly to intraoperative technical skills

STUDY DESIGN

Literature review of complications unrelated directly to surgical skills involved in spinal deformity surgery.

OBJECTIVE

Highlight complications associated with perioperative issues.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Complications can arise from mundane events that arise during the operative experience, but are not directly related to surgical skills.

METHODS

Literature reviews that touches on the more common potential complication events that do not involve direct surgical expertise.

RESULTS

The topics of positioning, nutrition, blood loss, comorbidities, OR time, and pulmonary and GI concerns are discussed as basics that could derail a surgical outcome even with an otherwise uneventful surgical technique. The need for vigilance is stressed and the nuances of understanding these are discussed.

CONCLUSION

Mundane events can derail a perfectly executed surgical undertaking. Attention to detail, team work, close monitoring, and checklist type focus will help to improve, focus, and avoid these preventable complications that have nothing to do with direct surgical skills.

Biomedical research of novel biodegradable copoly(amino acid)s based on 6-aminocaproic acid and L-proline

The biomedical properties of novel biodegradable copoly(amino acid)s based on 6-aminocaproic acid and L-proline were analyzed in this article. The cytotoxicity of the copolymer films was tested in vitro using human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. The cell proliferation, cell cycle, cell apoptosis, and hemolysis of the polymers were also investigated. No significant cytotoxic response was detected statistically by cytotoxicity assay, and the results of cell apoptosis and cell cycle showed that there were no statistically significant differences in them. Generally, the cells spread and grew well on polymer film. Meanwhile, the extent of hemolysis on the polymers was acceptable. Evaluation of cytotoxicity by cell cycle and apoptosis as a supplementary assay is correspondingly discussed in this article.

Perioperative blood transfusion: the role of allogenous and autologous transfusions, and pharmacological agents

The decision to transfuse patients perioperatively is made on an individual basis and should consider factors such as duration and severity of anaemia, symptoms, physiological parameters and comorbidities. Autologous blood transfusion has the benefit of avoiding some of the immunological and infective complications associated with allogenic blood transfusion. Pharmacological agents as well as anaesthetic and surgical techniques have a role in avoiding the need for blood transfusion.

Effects of perioperative blood product use on surgical site infection following thoracic and lumbar spinal surgery

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective case-control review.

OBJECTIVE

This retrospective study explored the hypothesis that the perioperative administration of blood products is an identifiable risk factor of increased surgical site infections (SSIs) after thoracic and lumbar spine surgical procedures.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Surgical site infections are a significant cause of postoperative morbidity and mortality. According to the Center for Disease Control's National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance system, which monitors the rate of hospital-acquired infections in the United States, SSIs represent the third most commonly reported type of nosocomial infection, accounting for 14% to 16% of all nosocomial infections. The incidence of SSIs after spinal surgery is influenced by both preoperative and intraoperative risk factors. The relationship between blood products and SSIs has been a matter of debate for more than 2 decades. Several studies have supported the association between the use of blood products and the development of postoperative surgical site infections.

METHODS

A retrospective case-control study was performed. We reviewed the charts of all patients who had undergone thoracic and/or lumbar spinal surgery at the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases between 2002 and 2007. All patients who had developed surgical site infections following spine surgery in this 5-year period were identified.

RESULTS

Data for 61 cases and 71 controls were included in this study. The analysis of the preoperative risk factors was performed for the entire population of patients. Body mass index and blood transfusions were found to be statistically significant risk factors for increased surgical site infections for this population.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support current theories that blood transfusions may have modulatory effects on the immune system of the recipients. Our specific study in spine patients may contribute to the expanding literature on allogeneic blood transfusions and the risk of nosocomial infections and encourage surgeons to favor a more restrictive policy with regard to transfusions.

Effect of epsilon aminocaproic acid on red-cell transfusion requirements in major spinal surgery

STUDY DESIGN

: Randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE

: To evaluate the efficacy of epsilon aminocaproic acid (EACA) to reduce the number of red-cell (RBC) transfusions in adult patients undergoing major spinal surgery.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

: Reconstructive spinal surgery is associated with significant blood loss. The number of studies evaluating the efficacy of EACA in adult patients undergoing spinal surgery remains scarce and limited.

METHODS

: EACA (100 mg/kg) or placebo was administered to 182 adult patients after the induction of anesthesia followed by an infusion that was continued for 8 hours after surgery. Primary end points included total allogeneic RBC transfusions through postoperative day 8 and postoperative allogeneic plus autologus RBC transfusions through postoperative day 8.

RESULTS

: Mean total allogeneic RBC transfusions were not statistically different between the groups (5.9 units EACA vs. 6.9 units placebo; P = 0.17). Mean postoperative RBC transfusions in the EACA group was less (2.0 units vs. 2.8 units placebo; P = 0.03). There was no significantdifference in mean estimated intraoperative estimated-blood loss (2938 cc EACA vs. 3273 cc placebo; P = 0.32). Mean intensive care unit length of stay was decreased (EACA: 1.8 days vs. 2.8 days placebo; P = 0.04). The incidence of thromboembolic complications was similar (2.2% EACA vs. 6.6% placebo; P = 0.15).

CONCLUSION

: The difference in total allogeneic RBC transfusions between the groups was not statistically significant. EACA was associated with a 30% (0.8 units) reduction in postoperative RBC transfusions and a 1-day reduction in ICU LOS, without an increased incidence of thromboembolic events. EACA may be considered for patients undergoing major spinal surgery. Larger studies are needed to evaluate the relationship between EACA and total RBC requirements.

Perioperative blood transfusion requirements in pediatric scoliosis surgery: the efficacy of tranexamic acid

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have noted that the use of antifibrinolytic medications can help reduce blood loss and transfusion requirements during cardiac, total joint arthroplasty, and spine surgery. Tranexamic acid (TXA) has been investigated in these patient groups but consensus with respect to the dosing regimen has not been achieved, especially in the pediatric scoliosis literature. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of 2 TXA dosing regimens on reducing transfusion requirements.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was performed on all idiopathic scoliosis patients undergoing posterior spinal instrumentation and fusion from 2005 to 2006 to determine total perioperative transfusion requirements. Transfusion requirements for those patients receiving either a low (10 mg/kg loading, 1 mg/kg/h infusion) or high (20 mg/kg loading, 10 mg/kg/h infusion) dose of TXA were compared.

RESULTS

High-dose TXA (n = 11) showed a trend toward a reduction in transfusion requirements compared with the low dose (n = 15) for idiopathic scoliosis patients undergoing posterior only instrumentation and fusion (687.9 +/- 778.1 mL vs 1372.6 +/- 1077.3 mL; P = 0.07; 95% confidence interval for the mean difference, -66.3 mL to 1435.7 mL). Although substantial, this difference was underpowered to show a difference.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of the higher dose of TXA resulted in a 50% reduction in transfusion requirements for idiopathic scoliosis patients. Given previous studies, there appears to be a dose-response effect. A prospective dose-ranging study is now required to determine the optimal dose for pediatric patients with idiopathic scoliosis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III, retrospective cohort study.

Complication of surgery for scoliosis in children with surgically corrected congenital cardiac malformations

INTRODUCTION

There is a high incidence of scoliosis in patients who have undergone cardiothoracic surgery for correction of congenital cardiac disease, this risk being 10 times higher than in the general population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

So as to analyse the surgical and postoperative complications, we designed a retrospective study to include every child who underwent spinal orthopaedic surgery, and who had previously undergone cardiothoracic surgery because of a congenital cardiac malformation. We excluded those patients who had syndromes associated with the development of scoliosis.

RESULTS

We identified 18 patients with surgically treated congenital cardiac disease who had undergone surgery for scoliosis over a period of 7 years. This group came from a total number of 87 patients undergoing spinal fusion over the same period. Of those with congenitally malformed hearts, 61% had acyanotic lesions, with ventricular septal defect being the most frequent single lesion, present in 40%. All the patients needed blood transfusions during the surgery, with aprotinin used in 73% to reduce the bleeding, and inotropes needed for 4 children. During the immediate postoperative period, 1 patient died in the first 24 hours, while 7 (39%) had different complications, pneumonia in 4, pleural effusions in 2, and rhabdomyolysis in the other, as opposed to a rate of complications of 27% in patients without heart disease.

CONCLUSION

The surgical and postoperative complications in these patients depend on the specific cardiac lesion. A multidisciplinary team with experience in the treatment of congenitally malformed hearts is essential for appropriate management of these patients.

Role of Amicar in surgery for neuromuscular scoliosis

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective case-control study.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the effectiveness of Amicar in decreasing perioperative blood loss in patients with neuromuscular scoliosis undergoing posterior spinal fusion (PSF) and segmental spinal instrumentation (SSI).

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Previously, a preliminary prospective; prospective randomized double-blind; same-day anterior and posterior spinal fusion; and fibrinogen studies have demonstrated Amicar to be effective in decreasing total perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements in surgery for idiopathic scoliosis. Increased fibrinogen secretion is a possible explanation. We are now analyzing its effectiveness in neuromuscular scoliosis.

METHODS

Amicar was administered at 100 mg/kg over 15 minute not to exceed 5 g after anesthesia induction. Maintenance is 10 mg/kg/h until wound closure. There were 2 study groups: group 1 (n = 34), no Amicar and group 2 (n = 62) who received Amicar. The majority of patients in both groups had cerebral palsy. Total perioperative blood loss was determined from the estimated intraoperative blood loss and measured postoperative suction drainage. Total perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements (cell saver and allogeneic) were compared using chi or Fisher exact test.

RESULTS

There was statistically less estimated intraoperative blood loss, total perioperative blood loss, and transfusion requirements in group 2. Postoperative suction drainage was also less but did not reach statistical significance. In group 1, estimated intraoperative blood loss, measured postoperative suction drainage, and total perioperative blood loss were 2194 +/- 1626 mL, 903 +/- 547 mL, and 3055 +/- 1852 mL, whereas in group 2, it was 1125 +/- 715 mL, 695 +/- 489 mL, and 1805 +/- 940 mL. Transfusion requirements were 1548 +/- 962 mL in group 1 but only 660 +/- 589 mL in group 2 (P < 0.0001). Amicar was equally effective in all diagnoses. There were no complications related to the use of Amicar.

CONCLUSION

Amicar was highly effective in decreasing perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements in patients with neuromuscular scoliosis undergoing PSF and SSI. It was most effective in decreasing estimated intraoperative blood loss. This results in decreased transfusion requirements, costs, and potential transfusion-related complications.

The use of antifibrinolytic agents in spine surgery. A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Antifibrinolytic agents have been shown to decrease the blood loss associated with major orthopaedic surgical procedures. Spine surgery, particularly procedures performed for deformity correction and procedures involving long arthrodesis constructs, can be associated with a large amount of blood loss requiring blood transfusions. The purpose of the present study was to determine if antifibrinolytic agents reduced blood transfusions in patients managed with spine surgery and to see if one agent had a greater effect than another.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the available literature were performed to investigate the efficacy of aprotinin, tranexamic acid, and epsilon-aminocaproic acid in terms of reducing blood loss and blood transfusions in patients undergoing spine surgery. This meta-analysis was focused on the role of these agents in major spine operations as reported in eighteen clinical trials that included information on the drug dosage, the age of the patient, blood loss, blood transfusions, surgery complexity, and complications.

RESULTS

Compared with control groups, the treatment groups for all three antifibrinolytic agents maintained lower levels of total blood loss and transfusions associated with spine surgery. The effect size (d) of the differences in total blood loss between the treatment and control groups ranged from -0.668 (95% confidence interval, -0.971 to -0.365) to -0.936 (95% confidence interval, -1.240 to -0.632) across all three agents. The effect size (d) of the differences in total blood transfusions between the treatment and control groups ranged from -0.466 (95% confidence interval, -0.764 to -0.167) to -0.749 (95% confidence interval, -1.046 to -0.453) across all three agents.

CONCLUSIONS

Aprotinin, tranexamic acid, and epsilon-aminocaproic acid are effective for reducing blood loss and transfusions in patients managed with spine surgery. With the exception of aprotinin, the side-effect profiles of these agents have not been shown to cause any substantial morbidity or to increase the rate of thromboembolic events. Epsilon-aminocaproic acid had a greater effect on reducing blood transfusions as the complexity of surgery increased. The surgeon and/or the anesthesiologist should consider the use of antifibrinolytic agents for patients undergoing spinal procedures in which a large amount of blood loss can be expected; however, at the present time, this is not a United States Food and Drug Administration-approved indication for these agents.

The role of Amicar in same-day anterior and posterior spinal fusion for idiopathic scoliosis

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective study of the effectiveness of Amicar (epsilon aminocaproic acid).

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the effectiveness of Amicar in decreasing perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements in same-day anterior (ASF) and posterior spinal fusion (PSF) with segmental spinal instrumentation (SSI) for idiopathic scoliosis.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Preliminary prospective, prospective randomized double-blind, and fibrinogen studies have demonstrated Amicar to be effective in decreasing perioperative blood loss in patients with idiopathic scoliosis undergoing PSF with SSI. Increased fibrinogen secretion is a possible explanation.

METHODS

There were 73 consecutive patients divided into 3 study groups based on the administration of Amicar: Group 1 (n = 16), no Amicar; Group 2 (n = 18), Amicar for the PSF with SSI only; and Group 3 (n = 39), Amicar for both ASF and PSF with SSI. All patients were managed using the same general anesthesia technique, intraoperative procedure, postoperative care path, and indications for transfusion (hemoglobin <7 g/dL). Total perioperative blood loss (estimated intraoperative blood loss for both procedures and measured postoperative chest tube and PSF wound suction drainage) and total transfusion requirements between groups were compared using one-way ANOVA.

RESULTS

There were statistically significant decreases in mean estimated intraoperative PSF with SSI, total perioperative blood loss, and transfusion requirements in the 2 Amicar groups. However, Amicar had no significant effect on estimated intraoperative ASF blood loss, chest tube drainage, or PSF wound suction drainage. Total perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements (cell saver, autologous, directed, and allogeneic blood) were: 3442.8 +/- 1344.0 mL and 1537.1 +/- 905.1 mL in Group 1; 2089.8 +/- 684.0 mL and 485.2 +/- 349.8 mL in Group 2; and 2184.1 +/- 1163.7 mL and 531.5 +/- 510.5 mL in Group 3. There were no Amicar related complications.

CONCLUSION

Amicar was highly effective in decreasing total perioperative blood loss and transfusion requirements in same-day ASF and PSF with SSI for idiopathic scoliosis. It results in less preoperative autologous blood donation, perioperative blood transfusion, costs, and potential transfusion-related complications. It was most effective in decreasing intraoperative estimated PSF with SSI blood loss. It had no significant effect during the ASF, postoperative chest tube, or PSF wound suction drainage. We now recommend that it be used for the PSF with SSI procedure only.

Antifibrinolytic agents for reducing blood loss in scoliosis surgery in children

BACKGROUND

Scoliosis surgery is often associated with substantial blood loss and potential detrimental effects in children. Antifibrinolytic agents are often used to reduce perioperative blood loss. Clinical trials have evaluated their effect in children undergoing surgical correction of scoliosis but no systematic review has been published. We performed a systematic review on the efficacy and safety of antifibrinolytic drugs in children undergoing scoliosis surgery.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of aprotinin, tranexamic acid and aminocaproic acid in reducing blood loss and transfusion requirements in children undergoing scoliosis surgery.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched CENTRAL (The Cochrane Library 2007, Issue 3), OVID MEDLINE (1950 to September 3rd 2007), LILACS (1992 to June 20th 2007) and EMBASE (1980 to July 23rd 2007). We also searched conference proceedings from 2003 to 2007 and the clinicaltrials.gov registry. No language restriction was applied.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included blinded or unblinded randomized controlled trials that evaluated the effect of antifibrinolytics on perioperative blood loss in children that were 18 years of age or younger and undergoing scoliosis surgery.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently performed the data extraction. Primary outcomes were mortality and number of patients transfused. Secondary outcomes were number of patients transfused with allogeneic blood, amount of total blood transfused, total blood loss and adverse events. To assess heterogeneity we used the I(2) test and for the quantitative analysis we used a fixed-effect model.

MAIN RESULTS

Six studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The total number of participants was 254, of whom 127 were allocated to placebo and 127 to antifibrinolytic drugs. Aprotinin, tranexamic acid and aminocaproic acid were evaluated in two studies each. All studies had placebo as the control group intervention. There were no deaths or any serious adverse events in any study, in either the active or the control group. The risk of being transfused was similar in patients receiving antifibrinolytic drugs or placebo. Antifibrinolytics drugs decreased the amount of blood transfused by 327 ml (95% CI -469.04 to -185.78) and the amount of blood loss by 427 ml (95% CI -602.51 to -250.56). There was no indication of publication bias, however, we cannot rule it out due to the small number of studies included.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The effect of antifibrinolytic drugs on mortality could not be assessed. Antifibrinolytic drugs reduced blood loss and the amount of blood transfused in children undergoing scoliosis surgery; however, their effect on the number of children requiring blood transfusion remains unclear. Aprotinin, tranexamic acid and aminocaproic acid seem to be similarly effective.

Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery in idiopathic scoliosis: evaluation of the learning curve

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review of patients with idiopathic scoliosis who underwent same-day or staged anterior and posterior spinal fusion and segmental spinal instrumentation.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of our learning curve with video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) with respect to operative time, blood loss, and complications in patients with idiopathic scoliosis.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

VATS is a minimally invasive alternative to thoracotomy in the management of idiopathic scoliosis. An increased or steep learning curve has been described in the initial application of this technique.

METHODS

We began performing VATS in 1998. We compared our first 25 consecutive VATS patients (Group 2) and subsequent 28 consecutive VATS patients (Group 3) to our previous 16 consecutive patients (Group 1) with a thoracotomy (1991-1998) for idiopathic scoliosis. Training at a sponsored regional course was obtained before performing our first VATS procedure.

RESULTS

VATS allowed more disc to be excised in Group 2 (4.5 +/- 1, 5.7 +/- 1, and 4.4 +/- 1 discs in Group 1, Group 2, and Group 3, respectively) and significantly decreased the anterior operative time (215 +/- 33, 260 +/- 56, and 177 +/- 47 minutes) and time per individual disc excision (50 +/- 13, 47 +/- 12, and 41 +/- 12 minutes), while providing comparable correction of the thoracic deformity (67% +/- 12%, 66% +/- 10%, and 70% +/- 13% correction). There was no increase in estimated intraoperative anterior blood loss (228 +/- 213, 183 +/- 136, and 211 +/- 158 mL), estimated blood loss per disc excised (51 +/- 42, 34 +/- 29 and 48 +/- 37 mL), or complications in the VATS groups. Complications were primarily pulmonary and resolved with medical therapy. Postoperative chest tube drainage (855 +/- 397, 462 +/- 249, and 561 +/- 261 mL) and total perioperative anterior blood loss (1083 +/- 507, 647 +/- 309, and 773 +/- 308 mL) were significantly decreased in the VATS groups, but this was attributed to the use of Amicar.

CONCLUSIONS

VATS is an effective procedure for anterior spinal fusion in idiopathic scoliosis. The learning curve is short, provided appropriate training is obtained.

Fibrinogen levels following Amicar in surgery for idiopathic scoliosis

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective evaluation of fibrinogen levels before surgery and after surgery in patients with idiopathic scoliosis undergoing posterior spinal fusion (PSF) and segmental spinal instrumentation (SSI) who received Amicar to decrease perioperative blood loss.

OBJECTIVES

To assess a possible association between postoperative fibrinogen levels and Amicar administration.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Our previous randomized, double-blind (Amicar and control) study demonstrated a rise in fibrinogen levels on the first postoperative day in the Amicar group, but not in the control group. Fibrinogen levels were not measured on the remaining postoperative days. We subsequently measured fibrinogen levels on all postoperative days in 21 consecutive patients with idiopathic scoliosis and found a dramatic increase throughout the postoperative hospitalization. This study is a continuation of our analysis of postoperative fibrinogen levels.

METHODS

We analyzed fibrinogen levels before surgery and on all postoperative days (4 or 5 days) until discharge in 51 consecutive patients, including our 21 previously reported patients, who received Amicar and underwent a PSF and SSI. We also analyzed the same factors with respect to perioperative blood loss as in our previous Amicar studies.

RESULTS

There were 41 females and 10 males with a mean age at surgery of 14.2 +/- 1.8 years. Their mean hospitalization was 4.6 +/- 0.8 days. Their mean estimated intraoperative blood loss was 766 +/- 308 mL and postoperative suction drainage 532 +/- 186 mL for a total perioperative blood loss of 1297 +/- 311 mL. The perioperative transfusion requirements were 0.5 +/- 0.6 U per patient. The preoperative fibrinogen was 255.5 +/- 58.3 mg/dL, and it rose steadily throughout the postoperative period to 680.9 +/- 111.9 mg/dL on the fifth postoperative day. There were no complications related to the use of Amicar.

CONCLUSIONS

Fibrinogen levels rise steadily throughout the postoperative period. The significance of this increase is unknown. Was it due to the use of Amicar or just the effects of surgery itself? Further investigations will be necessary.

Blood loss minimization and blood salvage techniques for complex spinal surgery

Several techniques to limit blood loss and salvage lost blood are available to surgeons, physicians, and personnel who treat complex spinal disorders. These techniques include red blood cell augmentation, intraoperative antifibrinolytic administration, use of topical hemostatic agents, and intraoperative blood salvage and postoperative blood salvage. A substantial amount of research has been directed toward reducing perioperative blood loss in spinal surgery. More efforts need to be directed toward effective perioperative blood management in complex spinal surgery.