Status epilepticus - time is brain and treatment considerations

Diagnosis and management of status epilepticus: improving the status quo

Status epilepticus is a common neurological emergency that is characterised by prolonged or recurrent seizures without recovery between episodes and associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Prompt recognition and targeted therapy can reduce the risk of complications and death associated with status epilepticus, thereby improving outcomes. The most recent International League Against Epilepsy definition considers two important timepoints in status epilepticus: first, when the seizure does not self-terminate; and second, when the seizure can have long-term consequences, including neuronal injury. Recent advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology of status epilepticus indicate that changes in neurotransmission as status epilepticus progresses can increase excitatory seizure-facilitating and decrease inhibitory seizure-terminating mechanisms at a cellular level. Effective clinical management requires rapid initiation of supportive measures, assessment of the cause of the seizure, and first-line treatment with benzodiazepines. If status epilepticus continues, management should entail second-line and third-line treatment agents, supportive EEG monitoring, and admission to an intensive care unit. Future research to study early seizure detection, rescue protocols and medications, rapid treatment escalation, and integration of fundamental scientific and clinical evidence into clinical practice could shorten seizure duration and reduce associated complications. Furthermore, improved recognition, education, and treatment in patients who are at risk might help to prevent status epilepticus, particularly for patients living in low-income and middle-income countries.

Outpatient management of prolonged seizures and seizure clusters to prevent progression to a higher-level emergency: Consensus recommendations of an expert working group

OBJECTIVE

The management of prolonged seizures (PS) and seizure clusters (SC) is impeded by the lack of international, evidence-based guidance. We aimed to develop expert recommendations regarding consensus definitions of PS, SC, and treatment goals to prevent progression to higher-level emergencies such as status epilepticus (SE).

METHODS

An expert working group, comprising 12 epileptologists, neurologists, and pharmacologists from Europe and North America, used a modified Delphi consensus methodology to develop and anonymously vote on statements. Consensus was defined as ≥75% voting "Agree"/"Strongly agree."

RESULTS

All group members strongly agreed that termination of an ongoing seizure in as short a time as possible is the primary goal of rapid and early seizure termination (REST) and that an ideal medication for REST would start to act within 2 min of administration to terminate ongoing seizure activity. Consensus was reached on the terminology defining PS (with proposed thresholds of 5 min for prolonged focal seizures and 2 min for prolonged absence seizures and the convulsive phase of bilateral tonic-clonic seizures) and SC (an abnormal increase in seizure frequency compared with the individual patient's usual seizure pattern). All group members strongly agreed or agreed that patients who have experienced a PS should be offered a REST medication, and all patients who have experienced a SC should be offered an acute cluster treatment (ACT). Further, when prescribing a REST medication or ACT, a seizure action plan should be agreed upon in consultation with the patient and caregiver.

SIGNIFICANCE

The expert working group had a high level of agreement on the recommendations for defining and managing PS and SC. These recommendations will complement the existing guidance for the management of acute seizures, with the possibility of treating them earlier to potentially avoid progression to more severe seizures, including SE.

Status epilepticus in patients with genetic generalized epilepsy: a case series study

BACKGROUND

Genetic generalized epilepsy (GGE) accounts for nearly one-third of all epilepsies. The feature of status epilepticus (SE) in patients with GGE has been rarely studied. We aimed to determine the electroclinical characteristics of SE in patients with GGE.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, nine patients with GGE were enrolled at Xijing Hospital, Xi'an, China from May 2014 to May 2020. SE was confirmed by 24-h video-EEG recording. The demography, clinical manifestation, brain MRI and SE pattern were analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the nine patients in the study, seven were female. The mean age of the patients at the time of inclusion was 16.8 years (range 7-31 years), and the mean age at the onset of epilepsy was 10.9 years (range 6-17 years). The follow-up time ranged from 3 months to 6 years. Myoclonic absence status was identified in four patients showing eyelid myoclonia with absence and one patient showing perioral myoclonia with absences. Myoclonic SE was identified in three patients showing juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Autonomic SE was found in one patient with eyelid myoclonia with absence. SE was terminated by oral midazolam in four patients. In the other five patients, SE terminated spontaneously.

CONCLUSIONS

The seizure type of SE in patients with GGE is often consistent with their major symptoms. Oral midazolam may be an option to terminate SE in patients with GGE.

Safety and Tolerability of Intravenous Push Lacosamide and Levetiracetam

Background: Lacosamide and levetiracetam are antiseizure medications (ASMs) commonly utilized in the treatment and prevention of seizures. Historically, these agents have been administered as slow IV infusions after further dilution. Recent literature suggests that rapid administration via undiluted IV push may be safe and may increase efficiency of administration. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the safety and tolerability of undiluted IV push lacosamide and levetiracetam over 5 min. Methods: This study was conducted as a single-centered, retrospective, observational cohort that analyzed the rapid administration of undiluted lacosamide and levetiracetam. Adult patients admitted from September 1st, 2019, to May 31st, 2020, receiving at least one administration of IV push lacosamide at any dose or levetiracetam at doses ≤ 1500 mg were evaluated. The primary safety outcomes were the incidence of hypotension and bradycardia. Results: A total of 86 subjects were evaluated; 36 patients were administered lacosamide, and 50 patients were administered levetiracetam. Hypotension or bradycardia occurred in 6 patients in the lacosamide group (16.6%) and 6 patients in the levetiracetam group (12.0%). There were no reported infusion site reactions. Among the subjects who received lacosamide and had a 12-lead electrocardiogram (EKG), there were no reported incidences of a prolonged PR interval. Conclusions: In this safety-analysis cohort, undiluted lacosamide and levetiracetam were not associated with significant adverse events when administered via IV push over 5 min. This seems to be a safe alternative method of administration to intermittent infusion. A larger, prospective cohort is needed to confirm these findings.

Nose-to-brain delivery of perampanel formulated in a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system improves anticonvulsant and anxiolytic activity in mice

Perampanel (PER) is a potent third-generation antiepileptic drug only available for oral administration. Additionally, PER has shown potential in managing epilepsy comorbidities such as anxiety. Previously, we demonstrated that the intranasal (IN) administration of PER, loaded in a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS), improved brain-targeting and exposure in mice. Herein, we investigated PER brain biodistribution, its anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects, and its potential olfactory and neuromotor toxicity after IN administration to mice (1 mg/kg). PER showed a rostral-caudal brain biodistribution pattern when administered intranasally. At short times post-nasal dosing, high PER concentrations were found in olfactory bulbs (olfactory bulbs/plasma ratios of 1.266 ± 0.183 and 0.181 ± 0.027 after IN and intravenous administrations, respectively), suggesting that a fraction of the drug directly reaches brain through the olfactory pathway. In maximal electroshock seizure test, IN PER protected 60% of mice against seizure development, a substantially higher value than the 20% protected after receiving oral PER. . PER also demonstrated anxiolytic effects in open field and elevated plus maze tests. Buried food-seeking test showed no signs of olfactory toxicity. Neuromotor impairment was found in rotarod and open field tests at the times of PER maximum concentrations after IN and oral administrations. Nevertheless, neuromotor performance was improved after repeated administrations. Compared with IN vehicle, PER IN administration decreased brain levels of L-glutamate (0.91 ± 0.13 mg/mL vs 0.64 ± 0.12 mg/mL) and nitric oxide (100 ± 15.62% vs 56.62 ± 4.95%), without interfering in GABA levels. Altogether, these results suggest that the IN PER delivery through the developed SMEDDS can be a safe and promising alternative to oral treatment, which support the design of clinical studies to evaluate the IN PER delivery to treat epilepsy and neurological-related conditions as anxiety.

Optimizing Status Epilepticus Management in the Emergency Department: It's About Time

Status epilepticus (SE) is a frequent medical emergency that requires expedited treatment to avoid the ensuing high incidence of morbidity and mortality associated with prolonged seizures. Protracted seizure duration itself has the potential to result in maladaptive neuronal responses that can not only further increase seizure duration and worsen clinical outcomes but also lead to reduced responsiveness to pharmacotherapy. Benzodiazepines are consistently recommended as first-line treatment due to their rapid onset and efficacy in terminating seizures, followed by the emergent administration of an antiepileptic drug (AED). Various benzodiazepine and AED options are recommended and can be utilized in this setting, all with their own unique advantages and challenges. With time at a premium, agents should be selected that can be rapidly administered and have an advantageous pharmacokinetic profile in order to limit seizure duration and optimize outcomes. The intent of this review is to provide an outline of the importance of time-to-treatment implementation in this setting, assess the landscape of options that may provide timing advantages, and examine potential strategies for deploying expeditious therapy.

Intranasal delivery of lipid-based nanosystems as a promising approach for brain targeting of the new-generation antiepileptic drug perampanel

Perampanel (PER), a new-generation antiepileptic drug effective against different types of seizures, has already demonstrated a potential in status epilepticus therapy. Considering the growing interest of intranasal (IN) administration for nose-to-brain delivery, PER could be envisioned as a good candidate for this route, especially if formulated in a lipid-based nanosystem. With that purpose, a hydrophobic formulation (FO1.2) and a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) (FH5) loaded with PER were developed and characterized. Following PER IN administration (1 mg/kg) to mice, its pharmacokinetics was characterized and compared with intravenous and oral routes. Histopathological toxicity was also examined after a 7-day repeated dose study. FH5 homogeneously formed nanodroplets upon dispersion (20.07 ± 0.03 nm), showing a sustained in vitro PER release profile up to 4 h. By IN route, PER brain delivery was more extensive with FH5 (C_max and AUC of 52.32 ng/g and 190.35 ng.h/g for FO1.2; 93.87 ng/g and 257.75 ng.h/g for FH5). Maximum brain concentration and total brain exposure were higher than those obtained after oral dosage, with maximum PER concentrations reached significantly faster than post-oral administration (15 min vs 2 h). An improvement in PER plasmatic concentration was also obtained, demonstrated by high relative bioavailability values (134.1% for FH5 and 107.8% for FO1.2). PER absolute plasma bioavailability after IN delivery was 55.5% for FH5 and 44.6% for FO1.2, ensuring a somewhat improved targeting of PER to the brain by the IN route compared to the IV route. No signs of toxicity were found by histopathologic evaluation. Results suggest that IN administration of PER might be a feasible and safe approach for acute and chronic epilepsy management, especially using delivery systems as SMEDDS.

Benzodiazepines in the Management of Seizures and Status Epilepticus: A Review of Routes of Delivery, Pharmacokinetics, Efficacy, and Tolerability

Status epilepticus (SE) is an acute, life-threatening medical condition that requires immediate, effective therapy. Therefore, the acute care of prolonged seizures and SE is a constant challenge for healthcare professionals, in both the pre-hospital and the in-hospital settings. Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are the first-line treatment for SE worldwide due to their efficacy, tolerability, and rapid onset of action. Although all BZDs act as allosteric modulators at the inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)_A receptor, the individual agents have different efficacy profiles and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, some of which differ significantly. The conventional BZDs clonazepam, diazepam, lorazepam and midazolam differ mainly in their durations of action and available routes of administration. In addition to the common intravenous, intramuscular and rectal administrations that have long been established in the acute treatment of SE, other administration routes for BZDs-such as intranasal administration-have been developed in recent years, with some preparations already commercially available. Most recently, the intrapulmonary administration of BZDs via an inhaler has been investigated. This narrative review provides an overview of the current knowledge on the efficacy and tolerability of different BZDs, with a focus on different routes of administration and therapeutic specificities for different patient groups, and offers an outlook on potential future drug developments for the treatment of prolonged seizures and SE.

Review and Updates on the Treatment of Refractory and Super Refractory Status Epilepticus

Refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus (RSE and SRSE) are life-threatening conditions requiring prompt initiation of appropriate treatment to avoid permanent neurological damage and reduce morbidity and mortality. RSE is defined as status epilepticus that persists despite administering at least two appropriately dosed parenteral medications, including a benzodiazepine. SRSE is status epilepticus that persists at least 24 h after adding at least one appropriately dosed continuous anesthetic (i.e., midazolam, propofol, pentobarbital, and ketamine). Other therapeutic interventions include immunotherapy, neuromodulation, ketogenic diet, or even surgical intervention in certain cases. Continuous electroencephalogram is an essential monitoring tool for diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we focus on the diagnosis and treatment of RSE and SRSE.

[Pharmacotherapy and intensive care aspects of status epilepticus: update 2020/2021]

Die gezielte Therapie epileptischer Ereignisse und im Speziellen des Status epilepticus (SE) setzt das sichere Erkennen der Krankheitsbilder voraus, wofür gerade bei Formen mit vorwiegend nichtmotorischen Symptomen klinische und elektroenzephalographische Expertise notwendig ist. Die im Jahr 2020 erfolgte Fortschreibung der deutschen Leitlinie zur Behandlung des SE hält an der streng stufengerechten Therapie fest, die eskalierend die Anwendung von Benzodiazepinen, spezifischen Antiepileptika und Anästhetika vorsieht. Bisher ist die Eingrenzung eines in den allermeisten Fällen wirksamen sowie zugleich sicheren und interaktionsfreien Antiepileptikums nicht gelungen. Individuelle Vorerkrankungen und aktuelle Begleitumstände gehen daher genauso wie Erfahrungen des Behandlerteams in die differenzierte Behandlung des SE ein. Insbesondere bei therapierefraktären Formen des SE erweist sich die Therapie als durchaus kompliziert und hat regelhaft intensivmedizinische Implikationen. Mithin ergeben sich im Zuge der modernen SE-Behandlung zahlreiche interdisziplinäre Schnittstellen. Zukünftige wissenschaftliche Fragstellungen werden sich u. a. mit der optimalen Therapie des nonkonvulsiven SE und hier v. a. dem Ausmaß und dem Zeitpunkt von adäquaten Therapieschritten sowie mit assoziierten ethischen Fragen einer Therapieeskalation beschäftigen.