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Li Y, Tang C, Vanarsa K, Thai N, Castillo J, Lea GAB, Lee KH, Kim S, Pedroza C, Wu T, Saxena R, Mok CC, Mohan C. Proximity extension assay proteomics and renal single cell transcriptomics uncover novel urinary biomarkers for active lupus nephritis. J Autoimmun 2024; 143:103165. [PMID: 38194790 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2023.103165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify urinary biomarkers that can distinguish active renal involvement in Lupus Nephritis (LN), a severe manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). METHODS Urine from 117 subjects, comprised of inactive SLE, active non-renal lupus, active LN, and healthy controls, were subjected to Proximity Extension Assay (PEA) based comprehensive proteomics followed by ELISA validation in an independent, ethnically diverse cohort. Proteomic data is also cross-referenced to renal transcriptomic data to elucidate cellular origins of biomarkers. RESULTS Systems biology analyses revealed progressive activation of cytokine signaling, chemokine activity and coagulation pathways, with worsening renal disease. In addition to validating 30 previously reported biomarkers, this study uncovers several novel candidates. Following ELISA validation in an independent cohort of different ethnicity, the six most discriminatory biomarkers for active LN were urinary ICAM-2, FABP4, FASLG, IGFBP-2, SELE and TNFSF13B/BAFF, with ROC AUC ≥80%, with most correlating strongly with clinical disease activity. Transcriptomic analyses of LN kidneys mapped the likely origin of these proteins to intra-renal myeloid cells (CXCL16, IL-1RT2, TNFSF13B/BAFF), T/NK cells (FASLG), leukocytes (ICAM2) and endothelial cells (SELE). CONCLUSION In addition to confirming the diagnostic potential of urine ALCAM, CD163, MCP1, SELL, ICAM1, VCAM1, NGAL and TWEAK for active LN, this study adds urine ICAM-2, FABP4, FASLG, IGFBP-2, SELE, and TNFSF13B/BAFF as additional markers that warrant systematic validation in larger cross-sectional and longitudinal cohorts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxi Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Chenling Tang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Kamala Vanarsa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Nga Thai
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jessica Castillo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Kyung Hyun Lee
- Center for Clinical Research and Evidence-Based Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Soojin Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Claudia Pedroza
- Center for Clinical Research and Evidence-Based Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Tianfu Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ramesh Saxena
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Chi Chiu Mok
- Department of Medicine, Tuen Mun Hospital, New Territories, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chandra Mohan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
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2
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Liu Y, Xu K, Xiang Y, Ma B, Li H, Li Y, Shi Y, Li S, Bai Y. Role of MCP-1 as an inflammatory biomarker in nephropathy. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1303076. [PMID: 38239353 PMCID: PMC10794684 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1303076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), also referred to as chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), belongs to the extensive chemokine family and serves as a crucial mediator of innate immunity and tissue inflammation. It has a notable impact on inflammatory conditions affecting the kidneys. Upon binding to its receptor, MCP-1 can induce lymphocytes and NK cells' homing, migration, activation, differentiation, and development while promoting monocytes' and macrophages' infiltration, thereby facilitating kidney disease-related inflammation. As a biomarker for kidney disease, MCP-1 has made notable advancements in primary kidney diseases such as crescentic glomerulonephritis, chronic glomerulonephritis, primary glomerulopathy, idiopathic proteinuria glomerulopathy, acute kidney injury; secondary kidney diseases like diabetic nephropathy and lupus nephritis; hereditary kidney diseases including autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease and sickle cell kidney disease. MCP-1 not only predicts the occurrence, progression, prognosis of the disease but is also closely associated with the severity and stage of nephropathy. When renal tissue is stimulated or experiences significant damage, the expression of MCP-1 increases, demonstrating a direct correlation with the severity of renal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanlong Liu
- Heilongjiang Provincial Health Commission, Harbin, China
| | - Ke Xu
- Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, The Second Clinical Medical College, Harbin, China
| | - Yuhua Xiang
- Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Boyan Ma
- Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, The Second Clinical Medical College, Harbin, China
| | - Hailong Li
- Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Yuan Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Yue Shi
- Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, The Second Clinical Medical College, Harbin, China
| | - Shuju Li
- Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Yan Bai
- Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
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3
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Nie H, Chang S, Li Y, Li F. Biomarkers Associated with Drugs for the Treatment of Lupus Nephritis. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1601. [PMID: 38002282 PMCID: PMC10669579 DOI: 10.3390/biom13111601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The constant updating of lupus drug treatment guidelines has led to a question. How can the efficacy of treatment be more effectively monitored? Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease that often presents clinically with multi-organ involvement, and approximately 30% of patients with SLE develop lupus nephritis (LN). Therefore, it is important to better track disease progression and drug efficacy. Now, kidney biopsy is still the gold standard for diagnosing and guiding the treatment of LN, but it is invasive and expensive. If simple, non-invasive and effective biomarkers can be found, drug intervention and prognosis can be better monitored and targeted. In this review, we focus on LN and explore biomarkers related to LN therapeutics, providing clinicians with more possibilities to track the therapeutic effect of drugs, improve treatment options and assess patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiyu Nie
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
| | - Siyuan Chang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
| | - Yuanyuan Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
| | - Fen Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410011, China
- Clinical Medical Research Center for Systemic Autoimmune Diseases in Hunan Province, Changsha 410011, China
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4
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Macrophages in Lupus Nephritis: Exploring a potential new therapeutic avenue. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2022; 21:103211. [PMID: 36252930 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2022.103211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Lupus nephritis (LN) is a serious complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) that occurs in about half of patients. LN is characterized by glomerular deposition of immune complexes, leading to subendothelial, mesangial and subepithelial electron dense deposits, triggering immune cell infiltration and glomerular as well as tubulointerstitial injury. Monocytes and macrophages are abundantly present in inflammatory lesions, both in glomeruli and the tubulointerstitium. Here we discuss how monocytes and macrophages are involved in this process and how monocytes and macrophages may represent specific therapeutic targets to control LN.
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5
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Diagnostic test accuracy of novel biomarkers for lupus nephritis-An overview of systematic reviews. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275016. [PMID: 36215243 PMCID: PMC9550089 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease with multiorgan inflammatory involvement and a mortality rate that is 2.6-fold higher than individuals of the same age and sex in the general population. Approximately 50% of patients with SLE develop renal impairment (lupus nephritis). Delayed diagnosis of lupus nephritis is associated with a higher risk of progression to end-stage renal disease, the need for replacement therapy, and mortality. The initial clinical manifestations of lupus nephritis are often discrete or absent and are usually detected through complementary tests. Although widely used in clinical practice, their accuracy is limited. A great scientific effort has been exerted towards searching for new, more sensitive, and specific biomarkers in recent years. Some systematic reviews have individually evaluated new serum and urinary biomarkers tested in patients with lupus nephritis. This overview aimed to summarize systematic reviews on the accuracy of novel serum and urinary biomarkers for diagnosing lupus nephritis in patients with SLE, discussing how our results can guide the clinical management of the disease and the direction of research in this area. METHODS The research question is "What is the accuracy of the new serum and urinary biomarkers studied for the diagnosis of LN in patients with SLE?". We searched for systematic reviews of observational studies evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of new serum or urinary biomarkers of lupus nephritis. The following databases were included: PubMed, EMBASE, BIREME/LILACS, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane, including gray literature found via Google Scholar and PROQUEST. Two authors assessed the reviews for inclusion, data extraction, and assessment of the risk of bias (ROBIS tool). RESULTS Ten SRs on the diagnostic accuracy of new serum and urinary BMs in LN were selected. The SRs evaluated 7 distinct BMs: (a) antibodies (anti-Sm, anti-RNP, and anti-C1q), (b) cytokines (TWEAK and MCP-1), (c) a chemokine (IP-10), and (d) an acute phase glycoprotein (NGAL), in a total of 20 review arms (9 that analyzed serum BMs, and 12 that analyzed BMs in urine). The population evaluated in the primary studies was predominantly adults. Two SRs included strictly adults, 5 reviews also included studies in the paediatric population, and 4 did not report the age groups. The results of the evaluation with the ROBIS tool showed that most of the reviews had a low overall risk of bias. CONCLUSIONS There are 10 SRs of evidence relating to the diagnostic accuracy of serum and urinary biomarkers for lupus nephritis. Among the BMs evaluated, anti-C1q, urinary MCP-1, TWEAK, and NGAL stood out, highlighting the need for additional research, especially on LN diagnostic panels, and attempting to address methodological issues within diagnostic accuracy research. This would allow for a better understanding of their usefulness and possibly validate their clinical use in the future. REGISTRATION This project is registered on the International Prospective Registry of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database (CRD42020196693).
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6
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Wang ZH, Dai ZW, Dong YY, Wang H, Yuan FF, Wang B, Ye DQ. Urinary Tumor Necrosis Factor-Like Weak Inducer of Apoptosis as a Biomarker for Diagnosis and Evaluating Activity in Lupus Nephritis: A Meta-analysis. J Clin Rheumatol 2021; 27:272-277. [PMID: 32028305 DOI: 10.1097/rhu.0000000000001316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Urinary tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (uTWEAK) has been identified as a candidate biomarker for lupus nephritis (LN). However, its diagnostic value remains unclear. This meta-analysis was conducted to comprehensively evaluate the value of uTWEAK for diagnosis and evaluating activity in LN. METHODS Medline, Web of Science, Chinese Biomedical Medical, and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure databases were searched to acquire eligible studies published before September 30, 2019. The quality of the studies was evaluated by Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2. Summary receiver operating characteristic curve and area under the curve were applied to summarize the overall diagnostic performances. The pooled sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) were calculated with the fixed-effects model. RevMan 5.3, Stata 12.0, and Meta-disc 1.4 software were used. RESULTS A total of 7 studies were included. Of these, 4 studies were available for comparison between SLE with and without LN, and 3 studies were for active and inactive LN. The total area under the curve was 0.8640, and DOR was 14.89 (95% confidence interval [CI], 7.95-27.86). For LN diagnosis, the pooled sensitivity, specificity, and DOR were 0.55 (95% CI, 0.47-0.63), 0.92 (95% CI, 0.86-0.96), and 16.54 (95% CI, 7.57-36.15), respectively. For assessing LN activity, the pooled sensitivity, specificity, and DOR were 0.91 (95% CI, 0.82-0.96), 0.70 (95% CI, 0.58-0.81), and 18.45 (95% CI, 7.45-45.87), respectively. CONCLUSIONS This meta-analysis indicated that uTWEAK has relatively moderate sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis and evaluating activity in LN, suggesting that uTWEAK can serve as a helpful biomarker for LN.
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7
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Ma HY, Chen S, Cao WD, Min CT. Diagnostic value of TWEAK for predicting active lupus nephritis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ren Fail 2021; 43:20-31. [PMID: 33307926 PMCID: PMC7745842 DOI: 10.1080/0886022x.2020.1853568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Accumulative studies showed that tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) was up-regulated in the blood and urine from patients diagnosed with lupus nephritis (LN) and that it might be used as a novel biomarker for active LN. This meta-analysis aimed to determine the diagnostic value of TWEAK in active LN. Methods We searched the Cochrane Library, Embase, PubMed, Springer, Wanfang and CNKI databases for articles published up to 20 August 2020. The diagnostic capacity of TWEAK for active LN was assessed using pooled sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios (PLR and NLR), diagnostic odds ratio (DOR), and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Quality assessment and publication bias were also evaluated. STATA 11.0 and Meta-Disc 1.4 were used to perform these analyses. Results Nine cross-sectional studies were included in this meta-analysis. The overall pooled sensitivity of TWEAK for the diagnosis of active LN was 0.69 (95% CI, 0.63–0.75), and specificity was 0.77 (95% CI, 0.71–0.82). The overall pooled PLR and NLR were 3.31 (95% CI, 2.05–5.35) and 0.38 (95% CI, 0.26–0.55), respectively, with a DOR of 10.89 (95% CI, 6.73–17.63) and AUC (SE) of 0.8276 (0.0289). Deeks’ funnel plot revealed that the publication bias was insignificant in the study (p = .32). Conclusions Our results suggest that TWEAK might be a potential biomarker for patients with active LN. Future cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are needed to confirm its diagnostic value, as well as to establish more definite cutoff for active LN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Yang Ma
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Nanjing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shuang Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Nanjing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Wei-Dong Cao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Nanjing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Cui-Ting Min
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Nanjing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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8
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Ghafouri-Fard S, Shahir M, Taheri M, Salimi A. A review on the role of chemokines in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Cytokine 2021; 146:155640. [PMID: 34252872 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2021.155640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines are a group of cytokines with low molecular weight that principally direct chemotaxis of target cells. They have prominent roles in the pathogenesis systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and related complications particularly lupus nephritis. These molecules not only induce autoimmune responses in the organs of patients, but also can amplify the induced inflammatory responses. Although chemokine family has at least 46 identified members, the role of a number of these molecules have been more clarified in SLE patients or animal models of this disorder. In the current paper, we review the role of CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL11, CCL20, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL8, CXCL10, CXCL12 and CXCL13 in the pathogenesis of SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soudeh Ghafouri-Fard
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehri Shahir
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Taheri
- Skull Base Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Alireza Salimi
- Critical Care Quality Improvement Research Center, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Márquez-García JE, Hernández-Doño S, Ceja-Mendoza ML, Pedraza-Jiménez ML, García-Rivas M, Martínez-Escobar L, Fragoso-Sánchez A, Miranda de la Cruz LF, Granados J. Cytokines and growth factors in a biologic product obtained from patients' urine as immune-modulators to treat autoimmune and allergic diseases. Cytokine 2021; 141:155427. [PMID: 33581472 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2021.155427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
At "Instituto de Alergias y Autoinmunidad Dr. Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda, A.C." in Mexico City, a non-traditional health care center focused on the treatment of autoimmune and allergic diseases using personalized medicine, an alternative treatment referred to as an "immune-modulator" has been developed. In this study, we will refer to this treatment substance as the "immune-modulator." In brief, a urine sample is collected from the patient and processed to obtain the peptide fraction, which is conditioned and then administered sublingually to the patient. Sample processing involves multiple steps aimed at the removal of toxic compounds and enrichment for cytokines, growth factors, and other immune peptides that may contribute to the function of the immune-modulator. This treatment has been administered for many years, and patients testify that it is useful and reliable. Despite the benefits of this treatment, the molecular mechanisms underlying its effects have not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, this study aims to identify immunoregulatory peptides, such as cytokines and growth factors, in the immune-modulator. Urine and immune-modulator concentrations of cytokines and growth factors were assessed using a Luminex assay. Twenty-one cytokines and growth factors were identified in immune-modulator samples. MCP-1 was identified in 100% of the samples; MIP-1β, IL-8, RANTES, INF-γ, and IP-10 were identified in approximately 65-70% of samples; IL5, IL-1B, and IL-17 in 50-60%; eotaxin, VEGF, IL-6, and FGF in about 40%; MIP-1α, IL-9, GM-CSF, G-CSF, IL-12, and IL-15 in about 20-30%; and IL-13 and PDGF-bb were identified in <6% of samples. Additionally, patients exhibited significant changes in IL-1β, IFN-γ, and MCP-1 concentrations after treatment with the immune-modulator, whereas healthy individuals showed no significant change in response to the treatment. The immune-modulator is an alternative treatment based on the administration of cytokines and growth factors obtained from the urine of patients. In this study, its composition was characterized. The isolated products could be responsible for the effects of the immune-modulator. Further trials are required to evaluate the effective delivery of these molecules by the administration route described.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Márquez-García
- Molecular Biology Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - S Hernández-Doño
- Molecular Biology Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico; Transplant Department, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Medicas y Nutricion Salvador Zubiran, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - M L Ceja-Mendoza
- Instituto de Alergias y Autoimunidad Dr. Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda A.C, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - M L Pedraza-Jiménez
- Instituto de Alergias y Autoimunidad Dr. Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda A.C, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - M García-Rivas
- Instituto de Alergias y Autoimunidad Dr. Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda A.C, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - L Martínez-Escobar
- Instituto de Alergias y Autoimunidad Dr. Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda A.C, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - A Fragoso-Sánchez
- Instituto de Alergias y Autoimunidad Dr. Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda A.C, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - L F Miranda de la Cruz
- Instituto de Alergias y Autoimunidad Dr. Maximiliano Ruiz Castañeda A.C, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - J Granados
- Transplant Department, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Medicas y Nutricion Salvador Zubiran, Mexico City, Mexico.
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Capecchi R, Puxeddu I, Pratesi F, Migliorini P. New biomarkers in SLE: from bench to bedside. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2021; 59:v12-v18. [PMID: 32911542 PMCID: PMC7719038 DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/keaa484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomarkers may have a diagnostic or monitoring value, or may predict response to therapy or disease course. The aim of this review is to discuss new serum and urinary biomarkers recently proposed for the diagnosis and management of SLE patients. Novel sensitive and specific assays have been proposed to evaluate complement proteins, ‘old’ biomarkers that are still a cornerstone in the management of this disease. Chemokines and lectins have been evaluated as surrogate biomarkers of IFN signature. Other cytokines like the B cell activating factor (BAFF) family cytokines are directly related to perturbations of the B cell compartment as key pathogenetic mechanism of the disease. A large number of urine biomarkers have been proposed, either related to the migration and homing of leukocytes to the kidney or to the local regulation of inflammatory circuits and the survival of renal intrinsic cells. The combination of traditional disease-specific biomarkers and novel serum or urine biomarkers may represent the best choice to correctly classify, stage and treat patients with SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Capecchi
- Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Ilaria Puxeddu
- Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Federico Pratesi
- Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Paola Migliorini
- Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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11
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Moloi MW, Rusch JA, Omar F, Ekrikpo U, Dandara C, Bello AK, Jayne D, Okpechi IG. Urinary MCP-1 and TWEAK as non-invasive markers of disease activity and treatment response in patients with lupus nephritis in South Africa. Int Urol Nephrol 2021; 53:1865-1873. [PMID: 33459955 DOI: 10.1007/s11255-020-02780-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Treatment of patients with lupus nephritis (LN) requires judicious use of immunosuppression. Novel biomarkers may be useful for monitoring disease activity and treatment response. We assessed the utility of urinary monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (uMCP-1) and urinary tumour necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (uTWEAK) for disease activity and treatment response monitoring in South Africans with LN. METHODS We recruited consenting patients with active LN confirmed on kidney biopsy. Urinary levels of MCP-1 and TWEAK were assayed at baseline and after completion of induction therapy using ELISA methods. We also collected relevant demographic, clinical and biochemical data for patients included in this study. RESULTS The mean age of patients in this study was 29.8 ± 10.7 years, 60% were patients of mixed ancestry, 70% had proliferative LN and mean spot urine proteinuria at baseline was 0.37 (0.18-0.59) g/mmolCr. At completion of induction therapy, the level of uMCP-1 had reduced to 314.5 (IQR: 197.0-622) pg/mgCr from a baseline of 1092.7 (IQR 578.6-1848) pg/mgCr (P = 0.06) while uTWEAK had reduced to 36.0 (IQR 17.0-88.0) pg/mgCr from 159.0 (IQR: 88.5-295.5) pg/mgCr (P = 0.03). For patients reaching early complete or partial remission (n = 17), both biomarkers had significantly declined in their urine: uMCP-1 (P = 0.018) and uTWEAK (P = 0.015). There was no reduction of both biomarkers in patients not achieving remission and no association between uMCP-1 or uTWEAK with renal histological features. CONCLUSION Our study shows that uMCP-1 and uTWEAK are elevated in patients with active LN, correlated with the remission status (response to treatment) at the end of induction therapy and can, therefore, be useful for monitoring disease activity and treatment response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mothusi W Moloi
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Kidney and Hypertension Research Unit, University of Cape Town Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Department of Medicine, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Jody A Rusch
- Division of Chemical Pathology, University of Cape Town and National Health Laboratory Services (NHLS), Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Fierdoz Omar
- Division of Chemical Pathology, University of Cape Town and National Health Laboratory Services (NHLS), Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Udeme Ekrikpo
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Kidney and Hypertension Research Unit, University of Cape Town Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Department of Medicine, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria
| | - Collet Dandara
- Division of Human Genetics, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Aminu K Bello
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - David Jayne
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ikechi G Okpechi
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. .,Kidney and Hypertension Research Unit, University of Cape Town Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. .,Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
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12
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Stern EP, Unwin R, Burns A, Ong VH, Denton CP. Exploring molecular pathology of chronic kidney disease in systemic sclerosis by analysis of urinary and serum proteins. Rheumatol Adv Pract 2021; 5:rkaa083. [PMID: 33604504 PMCID: PMC7878848 DOI: 10.1093/rap/rkaa083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective. Renal involvement is common in systemic sclerosis (scleroderma; SSc) and includes chronic kidney disease (CKD). We have performed analysis of urinary proteins to gain insight into local molecular pathology of CKD in SSc and identify candidate markers for use in clinical trials. Methods. To evaluate urinary proteins that might specifically reflect SSc-related CKD, patients were recruited with confirmed SSc and stratified for the presence or absence of CKD. Controls included patients with CKD and no SSc, in addition to healthy volunteers. Candidate markers were measured in serum and urine by multiplex immunoassay testing for IL6, IL18, TNF-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1), monocyte chemoattractant protein 3 (MCP3), VEGF and the soluble adhesion molecules vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1). Results. One hundred and two subjects were examined, including patients with SSc with no evidence of CKD (n = 40), SSc with CKD (n = 39), non-SSc CKD (n = 11) and healthy volunteers (n = 12). Urinary levels of IL6, MCP1, TNF-α, MCP3, IL18 and ICAM-1 were elevated in SSc patients compared with healthy controls. The most significant differences were for MCP1 and ICAM-1 (both P < 0.0001), and these analytes also showed the most significant differences between groups overall (P = 0.003 for MCP1 and P < 0.0001 for ICAM-1). These markers showed a trend (MCP1, P = 0.0868) or a significant difference (ICAM-1, P = 0.0134) between SSc–CKD and SSc with normal renal function. Conclusion. Urinary levels of candidate molecular markers appear to reflect SSc–CKD more than serum markers. MCP1 and ICAM-1 are promising molecular markers for SSc–CKD and might be potential biomarkers of SSc renal involvement. This might be explored in future prospective analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward P Stern
- UCL Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases
| | - Robert Unwin
- UCL Department of Renal Medicine, UCL, London.,AstraZeneca BioPharmaceuticals R&D, Early CVRM, Cambridge, UK
| | - Aine Burns
- UCL Department of Renal Medicine, UCL, London
| | - Voon H Ong
- UCL Centre for Rheumatology and Connective Tissue Diseases
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13
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Liu L, Wang R, Ding H, Tian L, Gao T, Bao C. The utility of urinary biomarker panel in predicting renal pathology and treatment response in Chinese lupus nephritis patients. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0240942. [PMID: 33108403 PMCID: PMC7591050 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0240942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Given the urgent need for non-invasive biomarkers of LN, we aim to identify novel urinary biomarkers that facilitate diagnosis, assessment of disease activity and prediction of treatment response in a retrospective SLE cohort. A total of 154 SLE patients and 55 healthy controls were enrolled, among whom 73 were active LN patients. We measured renal activity by renal SLEDAI. The treatment response of the active LN patients who finished 6-month induction therapy was assessed based on the American College of Rheumatology response criteria. The expression levels of 10 urinary biomarkers (UBMs): β2-MG, calbindin D, cystatin C, IL-18, KIM-1, MCP-1, nephrin, NGAL, VCAM-1, and VDBP were tested using Luminex high-throughput proteomics technology. All but urinary nephrin levels were significantly increased in active LN compared to healthy controls. uCystatinC, uMCP-1, uKIM-1 levels were significantly higher in active LN group compared to inactive LN group. Correlation analysis revealed positive correlation between uCystatinC, uKIM-1, uMCP-1, uNGAL, uVDBP and RSLEDAI score. In renal pathology, uCystatinC, uKIM-1, uVCAM-1, and uVDBP positively correlated with activity index (AI) while uVCAM-1 positively correlated with chronicity index (CI). Moreover, the combination of uVCAM-1, uCystatinC, uKIM-1 discriminated proliferative LN from membranous LN with an AUC of 0.80 (95%CI: 0.69–0.90). Most importantly, baseline uNGAL demonstrated good prediction ability to discriminate responders from non-responders in active LN patients after 6-month induction therapy. Using a multiplex bead technique, we have identified the combination of uVCAM-1, uCystatinC, uKIM-1 as a biomarker panel to reflect renal pathology and NGAL as a promising urinary biomarker to both reflect disease activity and predict treatment response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Liu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ran Wang
- Department of Rheumatology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Huihua Ding
- Department of Rheumatology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Tian
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ting Gao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chunde Bao
- Department of Rheumatology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail:
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14
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Cetin N, Kiraz ZK, Sav NM. Urine hepcidin, netrin-1, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 levels in multicystic dysplastic kidney. J Bras Nefrol 2020; 42:280-289. [PMID: 32818222 PMCID: PMC7657047 DOI: 10.1590/2175-8239-jbn-2019-0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Glomerular hyperfiltration may lead to proteinuria and chronic kidney disease
in unilateral multicystic dysplastic kidney (MCDK). We aimed to investigate
the urine neutrophil-gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), netrin-1,
hepcidin, and C-C motif chemokine ligand-2 (MCP-1/CCL-2) levels in patients
with MCDK. Methods: Thirty-two patients and 25 controls were included. The urine hepcidin,
netrin-1, NGAL, and MCP-1/CCL-2 levels were determined by ELISA. Results: The
patients had higher serum creatinine
(Cr) levels, urine albumin, and netrin-1/
Cr ratio with lower GFR. There were
positive correlations between urine
protein/Cr, MCP-1/CCL-2/Cr, and
netrin-1 with NGAL (r = 0.397, p =
0.031; r = 0.437, p = 0.041, r = 0.323, p
= 0.042, respectively). Urine netrin-1/Cr
was positively correlated with MCP-1/
CCL-2/Cr (r = 0.356, p = 0.045). There
were positive associations between the
presence of proteinuria and netrin-1/
Cr, MCP-1/CCL-2/Cr, and NGAL/Cr
[Odds ratio (OR): 1.423, p = 0.037,
OR: 1.553, p = 0.033, OR: 2.112, p
= 0.027, respectively)]. ROC curve
analysis showed that netrin-1/Cr,
MCP-1/CCL-2/Cr, and NGAL/Cr had
high predictive values for determining
proteinuria p = 0.027, p = 0.041,
p = 0.035, respectively). Urine hepcidin/
Cr was negatively correlated with
tubular phosphorus reabsorption and
was positively correlated with urine
NGAL/Cr (r = -0.418, p = 0.019; r
= 0.682, p = 0.000; respectively). Conclusions: MCP-1/CCL-2 may play a role in the development of proteinuria in MCDK.
Netrin-1 may be a protective factor against proteinuria-induced renal
injury. Urine hepcidin/Cr may reflect proximal tubule damage in MCDK. Urine
NGAL/Cr may be a predictor of tubule damage by proteinuria.
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15
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Aragón CC, Tafúr RA, Suárez-Avellaneda A, Martínez MDT, Salas ADL, Tobón GJ. Urinary biomarkers in lupus nephritis. J Transl Autoimmun 2020; 3:100042. [PMID: 32743523 PMCID: PMC7388339 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtauto.2020.100042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the prototypical autoimmune disease that can affect any organ of the body. Multiple mechanisms may contribute to the pathophysiology of systemic lupus, including failure to remove apoptotic bodies, hyperactivity of self-reactive B and T lymphocytes, abnormal exposure to autoantigens, and increased levels of B-cell stimulatory cytokines. The involvement of the kidney, called lupus nephritis (LN), during the course of the disease affects between 30% and 60% of adult SLE patients, and up to 70% of children. LN is an immune-mediated glomerulonephritis that is a common and serious finding in patients with SLE. Nowadays, renal biopsy is considered the gold standard for classifying LN, besides its degree of activity or chronicity. Nevertheless, renal biopsy lacks the ability to predict which patients will respond to immunosuppressive therapy and is a costly and risky procedure that is not practical in the monitoring of LN because serial repetitions would be necessary. Consequently, many serum and urinary biomarkers have been studied in SLE patients for the complementary study of LN, existing conventional biomarkers like proteinuria, protein/creatinine ratio in spot urine, 24 h urine proteinuria, creatinine clearance, among others and non-conventional biomarkers, like Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), have been correlated with the histological findings of the different types of LN. In this article, we review the advances in lupus nephritis urinary biomarkers. Such markers ideally should be capable of predicting early sub-clinical flares and could be used to follow response to therapy. In addition, some of these markers have been found to be involved in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian C. Aragón
- GIRAT: Grupo de Investigación en Reumatología, Autoinmunidad y Medicina Traslacional, Fundación Valle Del Lili and Universidad Icesi, Cali, Colombia
| | - Raúl-Alejandro Tafúr
- GIRAT: Grupo de Investigación en Reumatología, Autoinmunidad y Medicina Traslacional, Fundación Valle Del Lili and Universidad Icesi, Cali, Colombia
- Universidad Icesi, Medical School, Cali, Colombia
| | - Ana Suárez-Avellaneda
- GIRAT: Grupo de Investigación en Reumatología, Autoinmunidad y Medicina Traslacional, Fundación Valle Del Lili and Universidad Icesi, Cali, Colombia
| | - MD. Tatiana Martínez
- GIRAT: Grupo de Investigación en Reumatología, Autoinmunidad y Medicina Traslacional, Fundación Valle Del Lili and Universidad Icesi, Cali, Colombia
- Universidad Icesi, Medical School, Cali, Colombia
| | - Alejandra de las Salas
- GIRAT: Grupo de Investigación en Reumatología, Autoinmunidad y Medicina Traslacional, Fundación Valle Del Lili and Universidad Icesi, Cali, Colombia
- Universidad Icesi, Medical School, Cali, Colombia
| | - Gabriel J. Tobón
- GIRAT: Grupo de Investigación en Reumatología, Autoinmunidad y Medicina Traslacional, Fundación Valle Del Lili and Universidad Icesi, Cali, Colombia
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16
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Aljaberi N, Bennett M, Brunner HI, Devarajan P. Proteomic profiling of urine: implications for lupus nephritis. Expert Rev Proteomics 2019; 16:303-313. [PMID: 30855196 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2019.1592681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Lupus nephritis (LN) is a common and significant manifestation, affecting 60% of adults and 80% of children with systemic lupus erythematosus, with up to 30% of patients progressing to end stage renal disease. There remains an unmet need for non-invasive markers of disease activity, damage, and response to therapy. In addition, non-invasive biomarkers that predict therapeutic efficacy are needed to enable cost-effective clinical trials of novel agents. Areas covered: This review examines the methodological aspects of urinary proteomics, the role of proteome profiling in identifying promising urinary biomarkers in LN, and the translation of research findings into clinically useful tools in the management of LN. Expert opinion: Targeted and unbiased proteomics have identified several promising urinary biomarkers that predict LN activity, damage (chronicity), and response to therapy. In particular, a combination of biologically plausible urinary biomarkers termed as RAIL (Renal Activity Index for Lupus) has emerged as an excellent predictor of LN activity as well as response to therapy, being able to predict efficacy within 3 months of therapy. If validated in additional large prospective studies, the RAIL biomarkers will transform the care of patients with LN, allowing for a personalized and predictive approach and improved outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najla Aljaberi
- a Divisions of Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics , University of Cincinnati College of Medicine , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Michael Bennett
- b Division of Nephrology & Hypertension, Department of Pediatrics , University of Cincinnati College of Medicine , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Hermine I Brunner
- a Divisions of Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics , University of Cincinnati College of Medicine , Cincinnati , OH , USA
| | - Prasad Devarajan
- b Division of Nephrology & Hypertension, Department of Pediatrics , University of Cincinnati College of Medicine , Cincinnati , OH , USA
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17
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Shimizu N, Hamaide A, Dourcy M, Noël S, Clercx C, Teske E. Evaluation of urinary and serum level of chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 as a potential biomarker in canine urothelial tumours. Vet Comp Oncol 2018; 17:11-20. [PMID: 30588734 DOI: 10.1111/vco.12436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) is a chemotactic cytokine recruiting monocytes, releasing growth factors and promoting adhesion in vascular endothelium. Elevated serum and urinary CCL2 levels and expression of its receptor (CCR2) have been associated with tumorigenesis in human urinary malignancies. CCL2 implication has not been investigated in canine urothelial carcinoma. The aim of this study was to evaluate CCL2 serum and urine levels (measured by ELISA) in dogs with urothelial carcinoma or non-neoplastic urinary tract disease. CCL2 serum and urine levels were significantly higher in diseased dogs compared with healthy dogs (P < 0.001). Dogs with carcinoma had significantly higher serum and urine CCL2 levels (P = 0.001) than healthy dogs. Dogs with metastases showed significantly lower serum and urine CCL2 levels compared with the non-metastasised tumour group (P = 0.007). CCL2 as a diagnostic marker for urothelial carcinoma held a sensitivity of 95.2% and a specificity of 38.2% in the urine. As a staging marker, sensitivity was 85.7% and specificity was 57.1% with a positive predictive value of 75.7% and a negative predictive value of 71.9%. Further investigation is needed to define the role of CCL2 as a prognostic marker in canine urothelial carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Shimizu
- Department of Clinical Sciences, FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - A Hamaide
- Department of Clinical Sciences, FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - M Dourcy
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - S Noël
- Department of Clinical Sciences, FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - C Clercx
- Department of Clinical Sciences, FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - E Teske
- Department of Clinical Sciences, FARAH, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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18
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Caster DJ, Merchant ML, Klein JB, Powell DW. Precision medicine in lupus nephritis: can biomarkers get us there? Transl Res 2018; 201:26-39. [PMID: 30179587 PMCID: PMC6415919 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus frequently develop lupus nephritis (LN), a condition that can lead to end-stage kidney disease. Multiple serum and urine biomarkers for LN have been proposed in recent years, yet none have become incorporated into clinical use. The majority of studies have been single center with significant variability in cohorts, assays, and sample storage, leading to inconclusive results. It has become clear that no single biomarker is likely to be sufficient to diagnose LN, identify flares, and define the response to therapy and prognosis. A more likely scenario is a panel of urine, serum, tissue, and genetic biomarkers. In this review, we summarize traditional and novel biomarkers and discuss how they may be utilized in order to bring precision medicine to clinical practice in LN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn J Caster
- Department of Medicine, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky; Robley Rex Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Louisville, Kentucky.
| | - Michael L Merchant
- Department of Medicine, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Jon B Klein
- Department of Medicine, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky; Robley Rex Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - David W Powell
- Department of Medicine, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky
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