Periodontal disease as a risk marker in coronary heart disease and chronic kidney disease

Machine learning-based models to predict type 2 diabetes combined with coronary heart disease and feature analysis-based on interpretable SHAP

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease exhibit heightened prevalence in the Chinese population, posing as leading causes of mortality. The combination of diabetes and coronary heart disease, due to its challenging diagnosis and poor prognosis, imposes a significant disease burden. In recent years, machine learning has frequently been employed in diagnostic applications within medical fields; however, predictive models for type 2 diabetes complicated by coronary heart disease have been confronted with issues such as lower predictive performance and interference from other comorbidities during prediction.

METHODS

This study enhances the predictive accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, F1 score, and AUC of models forecasting the coexistence of diabetes and coronary heart disease. We developed an advanced prediction model using XGBoost combined with SHAP for feature analysis. Through comparative feature selection, hyperparameter optimization, and computational efficiency analysis, we identified optimal conditions for model performance. External validation with independent datasets confirmed the model's robustness and generalizability, supporting its potential implementation in clinical practice.

RESULTS

This study compared three models-Random Forest, LightGBM, and XGBoost-and found that XGBoost exhibited superior performance in both efficacy and computational efficiency. The accuracy (Acc) of the XGBoost model was 0.8910, which improved to 0.8942 after hyperparameter tuning. External validation using datasets from Pingyang Hospital and Heji Hospital in Shanxi Province, China, yielded an AUC of 0.7897, demonstrating robust generalizability. By integrating SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) for interpretability, our study identified bilirubin levels, basophil count, cholesterol levels, and age as key features for predicting the coexistence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and coronary heart disease (CHD). These findings are seamlessly consistent with the feature importance rankings determined by the XGBoost algorithm. The model demonstrates moderate predictive performance (AUC = 0.7879 in external validation) with practical interpretability, offering potential utility in improving diagnostic efficiency for T2DM-CHD comorbidity in resource-limited settings. However, its clinical implementation requires further validation in diverse populations.

A review of the risks and relationships between oral health and chronic diseases

Advances in medical science and in preventive dentistry have changed the context of oral health. The American population is living longer with numerous complex chronic diseases. This paper is to raise awareness about the impact of multiple chronic diseases and their associations with oral diseases. Comorbidities can worsen the course of dental treatment. Inflammation has been the connecting factor in the bidirectional pattern of oral and systemic diseases. High occurrences of chronic diseases generally occur in aging as well as disadvantaged populations. Serious infections, slow healing, prolonged bleeding, and hospitalizations can escalate in patients with uncontrolled chronic diseases. A multidisciplinary team-based approach to patient management can minimize complications and unexpected challenges.

Association between periodontal disease and coronary heart disease: A bibliometric analysis

BACKGROUND

Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease are both prevalent diseases worldwide and cause patients physical and mental suffering and a global burden. Recent studies have suggested a link between periodontal disease and coronary heart disease, but there is less research in this field from the perspective of bibliometrics.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to quantitatively analyze the literature on periodontal disease and coronary heart disease to summarize intellectual bases, research hotspots, and emerging trends and pave the way for future research.

METHODS

The Science Citation Index Expanded database was used to retrieve study records on periodontal disease and coronary heart disease from 1993 to 2022. After manual screening, the data were used for cooperative network analysis (including countries/regions, institutions and authors), keyword analysis, and reference co-citation analysis by CiteSpace software. Microsoft Excel 2019 was applied for curve fitting of annual trend in publications and citations.

RESULTS

A total of 580 studies were included in the analysis. The number of publications and citations in this field has shown an upward trend over the past 30 years. There was less direct collaboration among authors and institutions in this field but closer collaboration between countries. The United States was the country with the most published articles in this field (169/580, 29.14%). Based on the results of keyword analysis and literature co-citation analysis, C-reactive protein, oral flora, atherosclerosis, infection, and inflammation were previous research hotspots, while global burden and cardiovascular outcomes were considered emerging trends in this field.

CONCLUSION

Studies on periodontal disease and coronary heart disease, which have attracted the attention of an increasing number of researchers, have been successfully analyzed using bibliometrics and visualization techniques. This paper will help scholars better understand the dynamic evolution of periodontal disease and coronary heart disease and point out the direction for future research.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This paper presents an overview between periodontal disease and coronary heart disease. Further exploration of the two diseases themselves and the potential causal relationship between the two is necessary and relevant, which may impact basic research, diagnosis, and treatment related to both diseases. This will aid the work of researchers and specialist doctors, and ultimately benefit patients with both diseases.

Machine learning-based models to predict one-year mortality among Chinese older patients with coronary artery disease combined with impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes mellitus

PURPOSE

An accurate prediction of survival prognosis is beneficial to guide clinical decision-making. This prospective study aimed to develop a model to predict one-year mortality among older patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) combined with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or diabetes mellitus (DM) using machine learning techniques.

METHODS

A total of 451 patients with CAD combined with IGT and DM were finally enrolled, and those patients randomly split 70:30 into training cohort (n = 308) and validation cohort (n = 143).

RESULTS

The one-year mortality was 26.83%. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) method and ten-fold cross-validation identified that seven characteristics were significantly associated with one-year mortality with creatine, N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and chronic heart failure being risk factors and hemoglobin, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, albumin, and statins being protective factors. The gradient boosting machine model outperformed other models in terms of Brier score (0.114) and area under the curve (0.836). The gradient boosting machine model also showed favorable calibration and clinical usefulness based on calibration curve and clinical decision curve. The Shapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) found that the top three features associated with one-year mortality were NT-proBNP, albumin, and statins. The web-based application could be available at https://starxueshu-online-application1-year-mortality-main-49cye8.streamlitapp.com/ .

CONCLUSIONS

This study proposes an accurate model to stratify patients with a high risk of one-year mortality. The gradient boosting machine model demonstrates promising prediction performance. Some interventions to affect NT-proBNP and albumin levels, and statins, are beneficial to improve survival outcome among patients with CAD combined with IGT or DM.

Higher dental care is positively associated with key prognosis factors in peritoneal dialysis patients: findings from a retrospective study

Background

Oral disease may be increased in people with end-stage renal disease and associated with inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and mortality. Moreover, oral disease may be essential to decide the prognosis of peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. However, only a few reports have explored the effects of dental care (DC) on cardiovascular diseases and mortality in PD patients. Thus, we aimed to investigate the association of DC with the prognosis of PD patients.

Methods

In this single-center, retrospective study, we enrolled 165 incident PD patients aged ≥ 20 years. We classified patients based on their dental care score, assessed using a self-reported questionnaire into the better dental care group (Group A, score ≥ 7) or the worse dental care group (Group B, score < 7). Demographic, clinical, hospitalization, hospital admission, comorbidities (including congestive heart failure, acute coronary syndrome, stroke, peripheral artery disease, and pneumonia), and mortality (including specific causes) data were extracted from the patient’s medical records. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, Wilcoxon t-test, Kruskal–Wallis, Mann–Whitney U-test, chi-square test, Fisher’s exact test and multiple regression when appropriate. We compared the survival distributions among groups using the long-rank test.

Results

Of the 165 patients, 75 were allocated to group A and 90 to group B. PD patients with better dental care (group A) had significantly lower levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and higher levels of serum albumin compared to PD patients with worse dental care (group B). Hospital admissions due to congestive heart failure, acute coronary syndrome, pneumonia, and peritonitis were also lower in group A than group B. Mortality rates due to congestive heart failure, acute coronary syndrome, pneumonia, and sepsis were lower in group A than in group B.

Conclusions

The study highlights the importance of good dental care, particularly for PD patients. Nephrologists and dental professions should design and implement oral health education strategies to improve PD patients’ dental care.

TNF-α, IL-1β, MMP-8 Crevicular Profile in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease and Periodontitis

Increasing evidence sustains the potential of periodontitis as a risk factor for chronic kidney disease (CKD). Our study aimed to analyze several periodontal specific inflammatory biomarkers within the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) of patients with CKD, compared to patients with normal kidney function, providing an inflammatory profile of the dialysis patient. The study comprised 79 patients divided into: group 1 (59 subjects with periodontitis and CKD) and group 2 (20 patients with periodontitis, without other systemic conditions). Clinical diagnosis was performed via dental and periodontal examination. GCF samples were collected from each patient, and the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and MMP-8 were determined by using ELISA assay. In group 1, the average values were: 22.85 ± 5.87 pg/mL for TNF-α, 33.00 ± 39.68 pg/mL for IL-1β and 18.80 ± 27.75 ng/mL for MMP-8. In group 2, the mean values were: 2.10 ± 1.34 pg/mL for TNF-α, 0.71 ± 2.42 pg/mL for IL-1β and 5.35 ± 0.37 ng/mL for MMP-8. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences between groups as referring to all three biomarkers and, TNF-α and MMP-8, in certain stages of periodontitis. The level of TNF-α, IL-1β and MMP-8 points out the increased inflammatory status of the dialysis patient with PD, supporting the mutual connection of the two pathologies.

Oral Health Status among Migrants from Middle- and Low-Income Countries to Europe: A Systematic Review

Introduction. Economic inequality, political instability and globalization have contributed to the constant growth of the migration phenomenon in recent years. In particular, a total of 4.2 million people migrated to Europe during 2019 and most of them settled in Germany, France and Italy. Objectives. The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review of studies analyzing the oral health condition among migrants from middle- and low-income countries to Europe and assessing the eventual association between their sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics and oral health status. Materials and Methods. A systematic review was conducted in PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus and Science Direct databases. After titles, abstracts and full-text examination, only 27 articles were selected on the basis of inclusion criteria and consequently included for quality assessments and data extraction. Results. Most of the studies reported a higher prevalence of caries experience, a poorer periodontal health and more difficulties in accessing dentalcare services among migrant groups compared with the non-migrant population. Inequalities were mostly associated with ethnic background, economic condition and social grade. Conclusion. Our review demonstrates the lack of dental health among migrants, underlining that their cultural beliefs and their social and economic living conditions could influence their oral health.

A Case Series Analysis of Dental Extractions' Outcome in Cats with Chronic Gingivostomatitis Carrying Retroviral Disease

Simple Summary

Feline chronic gingivostomatitis (FCGS) is a chronic, painful, oral inflammatory disease, which can be associated with retroviral disease comorbidity’s, namely feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukaemia virus (FeLV). A total 111 case series of cats affected by this oral disease, treated with dental extractions, were analyzed retrospectively, considering if they carried or not one of these retroviral diseases. Cats with lingual ulcers, independently from their retroviral status, were 2.7 times more prone to have a worse response to dental extractions than cats without lingual ulcers. When compared with cats without retroviral disease, FeLV-positive cats presented less proliferative lesions and tended to have more lingual ulcers. Furthermore, these cats had a significantly worse outcome, with 7.5 times more chances of having no improvement.

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate and compare the clinical outcome after dental extractions of cats with FCGS infected with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukaemia virus (FeLV). A retrospective case series included cats with diagnosis of FCGS, availability of detailed clinical records, full-mouth dental radiographs, and retroviral disease test results. Effectiveness of surgical treatment (EOT) was registered. Three groups were defined: control, FIV and FeLV. In this study, 111 cats were included: 60 controls, 29 FIV- and 22 FeLV-positive cats. When compared with control cases, FeLV-positive cats had significantly less proliferative stomatitis lesions, and they tended to have more lingual ulcers. Concurrently, FeLV-positive cats had significantly less tooth resorptive lesions. No other significant differences in FCGS clinical signs were found between groups. FeLV-positive cats had a significantly worse outcome after dental extractions compared to the other groups. In fact, FeLV-positive cats had 7.5 times more chances of having no improvement after dental extractions. This study concludes that the response to dental extractions in FeLV-positive cats is significantly worse, when comparing to cats that do not carry retroviral disease. Therefore, it is important to acknowledge the effect of FeLV status on the prognosis of these cats.

Dental caries-related primary hypertension in children and adolescents: Cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is a growing clinical problem in pediatric population. Also, the cause of hypertension is usually unknown and it may result from systemic inflammation related to tooth decay.

AIM

To estimate the potential association in cross-sectional study between tooth decay and hypertension in children and adolescents.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Study group-65 children diagnosed with primary arterial hypertension; control subjects-44 normotensive children. Blood pressure, dental examination, measurement of salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase, secretory IgA, and lysozyme concentrations were performed in all of the children.

RESULTS

Hyper- and normotensive children had similar peripheral blood morphology and serum biochemical parameters, except of uric acid concentration, which was significantly higher in the study group (p = .047). Salivary evening concentrations of cortisol and alpha-amylase were significantly higher in hypertensive children (p = .002 and p = .004, respectively). Although 24-hr systolic blood pressure (SBP), including daytime and nighttime SBP, correlated with "decay," "microalbuminuria," "BMI," and "glomerular filtration rate" (r > .75, r > .7, r < .68, and r < .43, respectively), in multivariate analysis only "decay" was associated with hypertension both in children and in adolescents (p < .0001).

CONCLUSION

Tooth decay in children/adolescents might be regarded as a potent trigger factor of hypertension in individuals in whom all other causes of secondary arterial hypertension have been excluded.

Influence of Chronic Periodontitis on the Long-Term Mortality and Cardiovascular Events in Kidney Transplant Recipients

Chronic periodontitis (CP) is associated with cardiovascular disease and mortality in different populations. The aim of this study was to examine an association of CP with hard endpoints in patients after kidney transplantation during a 15-year follow-up period. Study group consist of 117 patients (77M/40F, median age 44 years) divided into two subgroups: those with initially advanced CP (CPITN 3-4) and those with no or moderate CP (CPITN 0-2). All cardiovascular events, graft losses, and re-transplantations were recorded. All deaths were noted and verified, including those occurred after the return to dialysis therapy, the causes of death were identified. Cox regression with Firth's penalized maximum likelihood models were used for data analysis. During the observation period, 49 deaths occurred. Advanced CP (n = 35) was not associated with overall mortality but was associated with increased risk of death with functioning graft (DWFG) [HR 3.54 (1.20-10.45); p < 0.05]. Risk of graft loss was not associated with CP status. In conclusion, an advanced CP was independently associated with increased risk of DWFG, but not all-cause or cardiovascular mortality after renal transplantation.

Exploring the putative interactions between chronic kidney disease and chronic periodontitis

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and chronic periodontitis (CP) are both common diseases, which are found disproportionately comorbid with each other and have been reported to have a detrimental effect on the progression of each respective disease. They have an overlap in risk factors and both are a source of systemic inflammation along with a wide selection of immunological and non-specific effects that can affect the body over the lifespan of the conditions. Previous studies have investigated the directionality of the relationship between these two diseases; however, there is a lack of literature that has examined how these diseases may be interacting at the localized and systemic level. This review discusses how oral microorganisms have the ability to translocate and have distal effects and provides evidence for microbial involvement in a systemic disease. Furthermore, it summarizes the reported local and systemic effects of CKD and CP and discusses how the interaction of these effects may be responsible for directionality associations reported.

A review of the influence of periodontal treatment in systemic diseases

The effects and consequences of periodontal diseases might not be confined to the oral cavity. A great body of evidence has arisen supporting the claim demonstrating an association with several systemic conditions and diseases. With different levels of evidence, an association between periodontal disease and cardiovascular disease, diabetes, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, pregnancy outcomes and respiratory diseases has been established. However, the true nature of this association, if it is causal, still remains elusive. For a better understanding of the complex relationships linking different conditions, interventional studies now begin to focus on the possible outcomes of periodontal treatment in relation to the events, symptoms and biomarkers of several systemic disorders, assessing if periodontal treatment has any impact on them, hopefully reducing their severity or prevalence. Therefore, we proceeded to review the recent literature on the subject, attempting to present a brief explanation of the systemic condition or disease, what proposed mechanisms might give biological plausibility to its association with periodontal disease, and finally and more importantly, what data are currently available pertaining to the effects periodontal treatment may have. Raising awareness and discussing the possible benefits of periodontal treatment on overall systemic health is important, in order to change the perception that periodontal diseases are only limited to the oral cavity, and ultimately providing better and comprehensive care to patients.

Cardiovascular risk reduction with periodontal treatment in patients on the waiting list for renal transplantation

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular mortality is increased in chronic kidney disease, a condition with a high prevalence of periodontal disease. Whether periodontitis treatment improves prognosis is unknown.

METHODS

The effect of periodontal treatment on the incidence of cardiovascular events and death in 206 waitlist hemodialysis subjects was compared with that in 203 historical controls who did not undergo treatment. Patients were followed up for 24 months or until death or transplantation.

RESULTS

The prevalence of moderate/severe periodontitis was 74%. Coronary artery disease correlated with the severity of periodontal disease (P = .02). Survival free of cardiovascular events (94% vs 83%, log-rank 0.009), coronary events (97% vs 89%, log-rank = 0.009), and cardiovascular death (96% vs 87%, log-rank = 0.037) was higher in the evaluated group. Death by any cause did not differ between groups. Multivariate analysis showed that treatment was associated with reduction in cardiovascular events (HR 0.43; 95% CI 0.22-0.87), coronary events (HR 0.31; 95% CI 0.12-0.83), and cardiovascular deaths (HR 0.43; 95% CI 0.19-0.98).

CONCLUSION

Periodontal treatment reduced the 24-month incidence of cardiovascular events and cardiovascular death, suggesting that periodontal treatment may improve cardiovascular outcomes. We suggest that periodontal screening and eventual treatment may be considered in patients with advanced renal disease.

Prognostic study of cardiac events in Japanese patients with chronic kidney disease using ECG-gated myocardial Perfusion imaging: Final 3-year report of the J-ACCESS 3 study

BACKGROUND

Myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) is considered useful for risk stratification among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), without renal deterioration by contrast media.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The Japanese Assessment of Cardiac Events and Survival Study by Quantitative Gated SPECT (J-ACCESS 3) is a multicenter, prospective cohort study investigating the ability of MPI to predict cardiac events in 529 CKD patients without a definitive coronary artery disease. All patients were assessed by stress and rest MPI with 99mTc-tetrofosmin and data were analyzed using a defect scoring method and QGS software. Major cardiac events were analyzed for 3 years after registration. The mean eGFR was 29.0 ± 12.8 (mL/minute/1.73 m2). The mean summed stress/rest/difference (SSS, SRS, SDS) scores were 1.9 ± 3.8, 1.1 ± 3.0, and 0.8 ± 1.8, respectively. A total of 60 cardiac events (three cardiac deaths, six sudden deaths, five nonfatal myocardial infarctions, 46 hospitalization cases for heart failure) occurred. The event-free survival rate was lower among patients with kidney dysfunction, higher SSS, and higher CRP values. Multivariate Cox regression analysis independently associated SSS ≥8, eGFR <15 (mL/minute/1.73 m2), and CRP ≥0.3 (mg/dL) with cardiac events.

CONCLUSIONS

Together with eGFR and CRP, MPI can predict cardiac events in patients with CKD.

Relationship Between Periodontal Disease and Serum Factors in Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis

BACKGROUND

Chronic renal disease is a common condition with several recognized risk factors. Periodontal disease is a recently suggested risk factor for renal disease. We aimed to assess the relationship between periodontal disease and several serum factors in patients undergoing hemodialysis.

METHODS

This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on 57 patients undergoing hemodialysis. Periodontal examination was done by measuring the mean Pocket Depth (PD), Silness-Löe Plaque Index (PI), Ainamo and Bay Bleeding On Probing (BOP), Löe and Silness Gingival Index (GI) and Clinical Attachment Loss (CAL). Serum levels of albumin, calcium, phosphorus, hemoglobin, ferritin and creatinine were measured via a routine blood test. Cystatin C was separately measured. Data were analyzed using independent t-test, Pearson's correlation coefficient, chi square test and Mann Whitney test (alpha=0.05).

RESULTS

37 men and 20 women were evaluated. Of these, 26.3% had periodontitis and 73.7% had gingivitis. Serum level of albumin (P=0.02) and ferritin (P=0.043) in patients with periodontitis was significantly higher than that in patients with gingivitis. The serum level of creatinine (P=0.02), cystatin C (P=0.013), calcium (P=0.046) and phosphorus (P=0.037) had a significant correlation with severity of periodontitis and increase in CAL.

CONCLUSION

Increase in the serum levels of albumin and ferritin was related to the progression of gingivitis to periodontitis. Also, the serum levels of creatinine, cystatin C, calcium and phosphorus increased with an increase in CAL.

Prevalence of periodontitis, dental caries, and peri-implant pathology and their relation with systemic status and smoking habits: Results of an open-cohort study with 22009 patients in a private rehabilitation center

OBJECTIVES

This investigation, based on a 3-year epidemiological surveillance open cohort study, aimed to provide an insight of the prevalence of periodontitis, dental caries and peri-implant pathology and to compare inferentially between healthy and systemic compromised patients.

METHODS

A total of 22009 patients were observed consisting in 9035 men (41.1%) and 12974 women (58.9%) with an average age of 48.5 years (standard deviation of 15.6years). The prevalence of the 3 chronical oral diseases was calculated. The comparison between healthy and systemic compromised patients for each oral disease was performed through multivariate logistic regression: Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were estimated in one general model and one systemic condition specific model adjusted for age and gender. Attributable fractions were estimated for systemic conditions (both models). The level of significance was set at 5%.

RESULTS

The prevalence rate of periodontitis, dental caries and peri-implant pathology was 17.6%, 36.6% and 13.9%, respectively. The systemic compromised status was associated with the prevalence of the three chronical oral diseases on the general models. The systemic condition specific models yielded Diabetes [OR=1.49, 95%CI (1.24;1.79)] and HIV+ [OR=4.37, 95%CI (1.05;18.24)] as risk indicators for Periodontitis; cardiovascular conditions [OR=1.10, 95%CI (1.01;1.20)], Diabetes [OR=1.24, 95%CI (1.05;1.46)] and neurologic conditions [OR=1.84, 95%CI (1.32;2.57)] as risk indicators for dental caries; and smoking habits as a risk indicator for all three oral diseases [OR=1.90, 95%CI (1.74;2.07) for Periodontitis; OR=1.18, 95%CI (1.09;1.27) for dental caries; OR=1.84, 95%CI (1.64;2.07) for peri-implant pathology]. Attributable fractions estimated a potential reduction of 12.2% of Periodontitis, and 4.3% of dental caries cases if the exposure to systemic conditions was prevented; while the prevention of exposure to smoking alone would result in a potential reduction of 37%, 7%, and 39% of Periodontitis, dental caries, and peri-implant pathology cases, respectively.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The present study describes an epidemiological approach to the distribution and determinants of the three principal chronical oral diseases. The association of systemic conditions and smoking habits with oral disease prevalence highlight the importance of a narrow monitoring system.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study reported a high prevalence for oral disease and a potential association of a systemic compromised status and smoking habits with the three chronical oral diseases.

Is poor oral health a risk marker for incident cardiovascular disease hospitalisation and all-cause mortality? Findings from 172 630 participants from the prospective 45 and Up Study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between oral health and incident hospitalisation for ischaemic heart disease (IHD), heart failure (HF), ischaemic stroke and peripheral vascular disease (PVD) and all-cause mortality.

DESIGN

Prospective population-based study of Australian men and women aged 45 years or older, who were recruited to the 45 and Up Study between January 2006 and April 2009; baseline questionnaire data were linked to hospitalisations and deaths up to December 2011. Study exposures include tooth loss and self-rated health of teeth and gums at baseline.

SETTING

New South Wales, Australia.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals aged 45-75 years, excluding those with a history of cancer/cardiovascular disease (CVD) at baseline; n=172 630.

PRIMARY OUTCOMES

Incident hospitalisation for IHD, HF, ischaemic stroke and PVD and all-cause mortality.

RESULTS

During a median follow-up of 3.9 years, 3239 incident hospitalisations for IHD, 212 for HF, 283 for ischaemic stroke and 359 for PVD, and 1908 deaths, were observed. Cox proportional hazards models examined the relationship between oral health indicators and incident hospitalisation for CVD and all-cause mortality, adjusting for potential confounding factors. All-cause mortality and incident CVD hospitalisation risk increased significantly with increasing tooth loss for all outcomes except ischaemic stroke (ptrend<0.05). In those reporting no teeth versus ≥20 teeth left, risks were increased for HF (HR, 95% CI 1.97, 1.27 to 3.07), PVD (2.53, 1.81 to 3.52) and all-cause mortality (1.60, 1.37 to 1.87). The risk of IHD, PVD and all-cause mortality (but not HF or ischaemic stroke) increased significantly with worsening self-rated health of teeth and gums (ptrend<0.05). In those reporting poor versus very good health of teeth and gums, risks were increased for IHD (1.19, 1.03 to 1.38), PVD (1.66, 1.13 to 2.43) and all-cause mortality (1.76, 1.50 to 2.08).

CONCLUSIONS

Tooth loss and, to a lesser extent, self-rated health of teeth and gums, are markers for increased risk of IHD, PVD and all-cause mortality. Tooth loss is also a marker for increased risk of HF.

Dentists in the US should be integrated into the hospital team

Few dentists play integrated roles within hospital settings and few hospital emergency rooms have dentists. Existing research shows that only 67% of ER visits for dental problems are managed appropriately. Every year Americans die in hospital after being admitted because of dental disease and a recent study found that 20 people died after such hospitalisations in the United States in 2008. Authors of the current correspondence have conducted extensive research on characteristics of emergency room visits and hospitalisations due to various dental conditions using a nationwide dataset for the United States. This opinion article is intended to provoke discussion about the restructuring of hospitals to integrate oral health professionals into the hospital team.

Chronic Kidney Disease in Aged Cats: Clinical Features, Morphology, and Proposed Pathogeneses

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the most common metabolic disease of domesticated cats, with most affected cats being geriatric (>12 years of age). The prevalence of CKD in cats exceeds that observed in dogs, and the frequency of the diagnosis of CKD in cats has increased in recent decades. Typical histologic features include interstitial inflammation, tubular atrophy, and fibrosis with secondary glomerulosclerosis. In contrast to people and dogs, primary glomerulopathies with marked proteinuria are remarkably rare findings in cats. Although a variety of primary renal diseases have been implicated, the disease is idiopathic in most cats. Tubulointerstitial changes, including fibrosis, are present in the early stages of feline CKD and become more severe in advanced disease. A variety of factors-including aging, ischemia, comorbid conditions, phosphorus overload, and routine vaccinations-have been implicated as factors that could contribute to the initiation of this disease in affected cats. Factors that are related to progression of established CKD, which occurs in some but not all cats, include dietary phosphorus intake, magnitude of proteinuria, and anemia. Renal fibrosis, a common histologic feature of aged feline kidneys, interferes with the normal relationship between peritubular capillaries and renal tubules. Experimentally, renal ischemia results in morphologic changes similar to those observed in spontaneous CKD. Renal hypoxia, perhaps episodic, may play a role in the initiation and progression of this disease.

Association of Periodontitis With Urinary Albumin Excretion in Korean Adults With Diabetes: The 2012 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Albuminuria and periodontitis are both commonly associated with systemic inflammation. However, the association between urinary albumin excretion (UAE) and periodontitis in patients with type 2 diabetes has not been fully investigated. This study aimed to investigate the association between UAE and periodontitis in Korean adults with type 2 diabetes.This study performed a cross-sectional analysis and used hierarchical multivariable logistic regression analysis models. Data from the 2012 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were analyzed. A total of 547 patients, with type 2 diabetes without renal impairment, were included in this study. UAE was assessed using the urinary albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR). A community periodontal index greater than or equal to code 3 was used to define periodontitis.The risk of periodontitis tended to increase as UACR increased even after adjustment for potential confounders (P for trend in the odds ratios = 0.05 in model 1; 0.02 in model 2; and 0.01 in model 3). In a subgroup analysis, the prevalence of periodontitis was significantly higher in the patients with albuminuria (UACR >30 mg/g) than in those without albuminuria among patients younger than 65 years (P = 0.03), those with newly diagnosed diabetes (P = 0.04), or those without obesity (P = .04).UAE was positively associated with the risk of periodontitis in Korean adults with type 2 diabetes. In the patients who were younger, were newly diagnosed with diabetes, or had normal body mass index, individuals with albuminuria were more likely to have a higher prevalence of periodontitis. Early identification of periodontitis may be helpful in Korean diabetic adults with increased UAE.

Periodontal disease, chronic kidney disease and mortality: results from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Background

Periodontal disease is associated with increased mortality in the general population, however its prognostic significance in chronic kidney disease (CKD) is not known. We evaluated the joint effect of periodontal disease and CKD on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.

Methods

Prospective observational study of 10,755 adult participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994 (NHANES III). CKD was defined as estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 ml/minute/1.73 m² or albumin-to-creatinine ratio ≥ 30 mg/g. Periodontal disease was defined as moderate (> 4 mm attachment loss in ≥ 2 mesial sites or 5 mm pocket depth in ≥ 2 mesial sites), or severe (> 6 mm attachment loss in ≥ 2 mesial sites and > 5 mm pocket depth in ≥ 1 mesial site). All-cause and cardiovascular mortality were evaluated using Cox proportional hazards models.

Results

There were 1,813 deaths over a median follow-up of 14 years. In multivariate analyses, as compared to participants with neither periodontal disease nor CKD, those with periodontal disease only or CKD only had increased all-cause mortality (HR 1.39; 95 % CI, 1.06 - 1.81 and 1.55; 1.30 - 1.84, respectively). The presence of both periodontal disease and CKD was associated with HR (95 % CI) 2.07 (1.65 - 2.59) for all-cause mortality, and 2.11 (1.52 - 2.94) for cardiovascular mortality. We found no evidence of multiplicativity or additivity between periodontal disease and CKD. In stratified analyses limited to individuals with CKD, periodontal disease (vs. not) was associated with adjusted HR (95 % CI) 1.35 (1.04 - 1.76) for all-cause, and 1.36 (0.95 - 1.95) for cardiovascular mortality.

Conclusions

These findings confirm the well-established association between periodontal disease and increased mortality in the general population, and provide new evidence of this association among individuals with CKD.

The mechanism by which moderate alcohol consumption influences coronary heart disease

Background

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with a lower risk for coronary heart disease (CHD). A suitably integrated view of the CHD pathogenesis pathway will help to elucidate how moderate alcohol consumption could reduce CHD risk.

Methods

A comprehensive literature review was conducted focusing on the pathogenesis of CHD. Biomarker data were further systematically analysed from 294 cohort studies, comprising 1 161 560 subjects. From the above a suitably integrated CHD pathogenetic system for the purpose of this study was developed.

Results

The resulting integrated system now provides insight into the integrated higher-order interactions underlying CHD and moderate alcohol consumption. A novel ‘connection graph’ further simplifies these interactions by illustrating the relationship between moderate alcohol consumption and the relative risks (RR) attributed to various measureable CHD serological biomarkers. Thus, the possible reasons for the reduced RR for CHD with moderate alcohol consumption become clear at a glance.

Conclusions

An integrated high-level model of CHD, its pathogenesis, biomarkers, and moderate alcohol consumption provides a summary of the evidence that a causal relationship between CHD risk and moderate alcohol consumption may exist. It also shows the importance of each CHD pathway that moderate alcohol consumption influences.

How do high glycemic load diets influence coronary heart disease?

Background

Diet has a significant relationship with the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). Traditionally the effect of diet on CHD was measured with the biomarker for low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. However, LDL is not the only or even the most important biomarker for CHD risk. A suitably integrated view of the mechanism by which diet influences the detailed CHD pathogenetic pathways is therefore needed in order to better understand CHD risk factors and help with better holistic CHD prevention and treatment decisions.

Methods

A systematic review of the existing literature was conducted. From this an integrated CHD pathogenetic pathway system was constructed. CHD biomarkers, which are found on these pathways, are the only measurable data to link diet with these CHD pathways. They were thus used to simplify the link between diet and the CHD mechanism. Data were systematically analysed from 294 cohort studies of CHD biomarkers constituting 1 187 350 patients.

Results and discussion

The resulting integrated analysis provides insight into the higher-order interactions underlying CHD and high-glycemic load (HGL) diets. A novel “connection graph” illustrates the measurable relationship between HGL diets and the relative risks attributed to the important CHD serological biomarkers.

The “connection graph” vividly shows that HGL diets not only influence the lipid and metabolic biomarkers, but also the inflammation, coagulation and vascular function biomarkers in an important way.

Conclusion

A focus primarily on the low density lipoprotein cholesterol biomarker for CHD risk has led to the traditional guidelines of CHD dietary recommendations. This has however inadvertently led to HGL diets. The influence of HGL diets on the other CHD biomarkers is not always fully appreciated. Thus, new diets or other interventions which address the full integrated CHD impact, as shown in this paper, are required.

Periodontitis: Tip of the iceberg in chronic kidney disease

The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is constantly escalating not only in industrialized countries but throughout the world. It is of major significance because of to its high morbidity and mortality. Strategies to tackle this worldwide health problem include identification of its associated risk factors, comorbidities, and complications as well as proper management to handle all the pertinent issues. Periodontal disease, a treatable infectious state of the dental supporting tissues, is common in CKD patients. Its association with CKD is believed to be in a reciprocal or bidirectional fashion and has been massively studied. This paper, therefore, aims to review the recent evidence pertaining to the association between periodontal disease and a variety of renal illnesses. Most of the current evidence was collected from cross-sectional studies and clinical trials. There is substantial evidence indicating that periodontal disease contributes markedly to the chronic systemic inflammatory burden, leading to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications, the principal causes of death among chronic renal disease patients. Furthermore, several studies demonstrated that proper periodontal intervention could help improve systemic inflammation and even nutritional status among CKD patients, resulting in a better quality of life. Suggestions have been made that periodontal disease should be diagnosed early, and managed and controlled to, at least, eradicate a source of inflammation in this population. Awareness of such an important issue should be increased in the relevant medical personnel.

Nothing to smile about

BACKGROUND

Several studies have demonstrated the high incidence of periodontal disorders among patients suffering from mental illnesses, probably because of self-care impairment, the difficult financial conditions, and the lack of motivation. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of depression and alexithymia on periodontal status. Due to the influence of personality traits on behavior in general, the secondary aim of our study was to investigate the possible impact of personality disorders on dental status.

METHODS

Patients with major depression (DP) referred to our psychiatry unit and healthy individuals (controls) were consecutively enrolled during the period April 2012-September 2012. All the participants to the study underwent a psychiatric evaluation (through questionnaires investigating the presence of depression, anxiety, personality disorders, and alexithymia) and a dental examination through the following indexes: plaque index, gingival index, simplified oral hygiene index, periodontal index.

RESULTS

Fifty DP (aged 56.7±15.2 years) and 40 controls (aged 56.1±15.9 years) were enrolled in the study. DP showed a worse oral hygiene status. In particular, statistically significant differences were found when comparing DP and controls in terms of plaque index, simplified oral hygiene index, gingival index, periodontal index, and oral health impact profile. In addition, periodontal health was found to be negatively related to the severity of depression and the presence of alexithymia. The strength of association between depression and dental indexes was reduced after adjusting for the other psychiatric variables (alexithymia and personality disorders) and was confirmed only for oral health impact profile.

CONCLUSION

Psychiatric variables seem to affect the patients' periodontal status; due to the high frequency of dental problems, patients suffering from mental illnesses should be referred to the oral health services for evaluation.

An ignored cause of inflammation in patients undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis: periodontal problems

AIM

We aimed to assess whether there is a significant relation between periodontal health status and inflammation in uremic patients undergoing continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) and also to reveal the efficiency of periodontal treatment in patients with various degrees of periodontal problems.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Overall, 68 patients undergoing CAPD were included in the study. Clinical indices and measurements were obtained at baseline and panoramic radiographies were used for the diagnosis. According to the baseline values, patients were stratified into four groups according to the severity of periodontal problems as follows: healthy/gingivitis, slight-to-moderate, and severe periodontitis. A control examination was performed 3 months after the periodontal treatment for only 43 patients. Clinical and laboratory parameters before and after treatment were compared.

RESULTS

The frequency of periodontal disease was found to be high in uremic patients on CAPD. The frequency and severity of periodontitis was also found to be significantly (p < 0.01) higher in patients with high sensitive C-reactive protein levels and longer duration of peritoneal dialysis (p < 0.01). In addition, the periodontitis rate was found to be higher in patients with cardiovascular disease (p < 0.05) and diabetes mellitus (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

A meticulous periodontal examination should be a routine part of management of the uremic patients on CAPD because periodontal disease could be one of the hidden sources of unexplained inflammatory status.

Periodontitis in coronary heart disease patients: strong association between bleeding on probing and systemic biomarkers

AIM

Few studies have examined the relationship of individual periodontal parameters with individual systemic biomarkers. This study assessed the possible association between specific clinical parameters of periodontitis and systemic biomarkers of coronary heart disease risk in coronary heart disease patients with periodontitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Angiographically proven coronary heart disease patients with periodontitis (n = 317), aged >30 years and without other systemic illness were examined. Periodontal clinical parameters of bleeding on probing (BOP), probing depth (PD), and clinical attachment level (CAL) and systemic levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen (FIB) and white blood cells (WBC) were noted and analyzed to identify associations through linear and stepwise multiple regression analyses.

RESULTS

Unadjusted linear regression showed significant associations between periodontal and systemic parameters; the strongest association (r = 0.629; p < 0.001) was found between BOP and CRP levels, the periodontal and systemic inflammation marker, respectively. Stepwise regression analysis models revealed that BOP was a predictor of systemic CRP levels (p < 0.0001). BOP was the only periodontal parameter significantly associated with each systemic parameter (CRP, FIB, and WBC).

CONCLUSION

In coronary heart disease patients with periodontitis, BOP is strongly associated with systemic CRP levels; this association possibly reflects the potential significance of the local periodontal inflammatory burden for systemic inflammation.

Chronic renal disease in a captive two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus) with concurrent hepatocellular carcinoma

A 13-yr-old female two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus) with a prolonged history of worsening azotemia was necropsied shortly after euthanasia. On necropsy, the sloth had poor body condition, bilaterally shrunken kidneys, and a large neoplastic mass replacing the right liver lobe. Histologic examination demonstrated chronic renal disease with metastatic mineralization as the cause of morbidity. The liver mass was not associated with any known clinical signs and was diagnosed as a solitary and well-differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosed in a sloth and the first detailed description of chronic renal disease in this species.

Association between hypertension and periodontitis: possible mechanisms

This review is to examine the current literatures on the relationship between periodontitis and hypertension as well as to explore the possible biological pathways underlying the linkage between these health conditions. Hypertension is one of the major risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction are among the critical components in the development of hypertension. Inflammation has received much attention recently and may contribute to a pivotal role in hypertension. Periodontitis, a chronic low-grade inflammation of gingival tissue, has been linked to endothelial dysfunction, with blood pressure elevation and increased mortality risk in hypertensive patients. Inflammatory biomarkers are increased in hypertensive patients with periodontitis. Over the years, various researches have been performed to evaluate the involvement of periodontitis in the initiation and progression of hypertension. Many cross-sectional studies documented an association between hypertension and periodontitis. However, more well-designed prospective population trials need to be carried out to ascertain the role of periodontitis in hypertension.

Incidence of dental lesions in musk shrews (Suncus murinus) and their association with sex, age, body weight and diet

Both wild and laboratory strains of the musk shrew (Suncus murinus) have a high incidence of periodontitis. The authors completed necropsy examinations in 51 shrews to identify dental lesions including tooth loss, mobility and fractures. Dental lesions were identified in significantly more females than males, and older animals were more likely to have lesions present. Shrews with one or more dental lesions weighed significantly less than those without lesions present. Dietary supplementation with mealworms did not significantly affect the incidence of dental lesions or the body weight of male or female shrews. The authors recommend routine body weight measurement as a simple, noninvasive method of detecting shrews with an increased likelihood of having dental lesions.

Multiple chronic conditions: diabetes associated with comorbidity and shared risk factors using CDC WEAT and SAS analytic tools

BACKGROUND

Multiple chronic conditions (MCCs) are significant public health problems receiving much attention, and rightly so, because of the substantial morbidity, mortality, and cost burden.

OBJECTIVES

To report the prevalence of selected frequent MCCs with shared risk factors that are leading causes of death; and to quantify the association between diabetes and its comorbidity and shared risk factors.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study of 9172 participants in Pennsylvania's 2009 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Web Enabled Analysis Tool (WEAT) and SAS Proc Survey were used for all analyses, to account for BRFSS's multistage complex survey design and sample weights.

RESULTS

SAS estimated prevalence among ≥35-year-olds were as follows: diabetes (11.9%), heart disease (9.5%), stroke (3.3%), diabetes and heart disease (2.9%), diabetes and stroke (1.0%), heart disease and stroke (1.1%), and diabetes, heart disease, and stroke (0.4%). Adults ≥35 years old with the following characteristics were more likely to have diabetes when self-reporting: obese (adjusted odds ratio [ORAdj] = 4.63, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 3.41-6.30); low income (<$15 000 ORAdj = 2.85, 95% CI = 1.90-4.27; $15 000-$24 999 ORAdj = 2.07, 95% CI = 1.50-2.86; $25 000-$34 999 ORAdj = 2.06, 95% CI = 1.47-2.88; $35 000-$49 999 ORAdj = 1.51, 95% CI = 1.08-2.12); elderly ≥65 years old (ORAdj = 2.84, 95% CI = 1.76-4.56); non-Hispanic black (ORAdj = 2.54, 95% CI = 1.08-6.00); overweight (ORAdj = 1.99, 95% CI = 1.47-2.68); heart disease (ORAdj = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.47-2.56); 45 to 64 years old (ORAdj = 1.88 95%, CI = 1.21-2.93); hypertension (ORAdj = 1.78, 95% CI = 1.39-2.29); stroke (ORAdj = 1.62, 95% CI = 1.05-2.50); high cholesterol (ORAdj = 1.49, 95% CI = 1.18-1.88); physically inactive (ORAdj = 1.33 95% CI = 1.06-1.67); and men (ORAdj = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.04-1.67).

CONCLUSION

Adults with comorbidity and risk factors were 1.3 to 4.6 times more likely to have diabetes, with obesity consistently the strongest risk factor. WEAT's limitations are the predefined categories, inability to restrict to specific age groups and to estimate the prevalence of >2 MCCs. WEAT has considerable potential to advance evidence-based primary care practice and community health programs, such as state-wide programs that target obesity and physical inactivity. The robust capability of SAS to calculate MCC prevalence and adjusted associations with risk factors provides the fundamentals for developing and evaluating primary care services and community health programs.

Influence of the probiotic Streptococcus salivarius strain M18 on indices of dental health in children: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

The prevalence of dental caries continues to increase, and novel strategies to reverse this trend appear necessary. The probiotic Streptococcus salivarius strain M18 offers the potential to confer oral health benefits as it produces bacteriocins targeting the important cariogenic species Streptococcus mutans, as well as the enzymes dextranase and urease, which could help reduce dental plaque accumulation and acidification, respectively. In a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 100 dental caries-active children, treatment with M18 was administered for 3 months and the participants were assessed for changes to their plaque score and gingival and soft-tissue health and to their salivary levels of S. salivarius, S. mutans, lactobacilli, β-haemolytic streptococci and Candida species. At treatment end, the plaque scores were significantly (P = 0.05) lower for children in the M18-treated group, especially in subjects having high initial plaque scores. The absence of any significant adverse events supported the safety of the probiotic treatment. Cell-culture analyses of sequential saliva samples showed no differences between the probiotic and placebo groups in counts of the specifically enumerated oral micro-organisms, with the exception of the subgroup of the M18-treated children who appeared to have been colonized most effectively with M18. This subgroup exhibited reduced S. mutans counts, indicating that the anti-caries activity of M18 probiotic treatments may be enhanced if the efficiency of colonization is increased. It was concluded that S. salivarius M18 can provide oral health benefits when taken regularly.

Developing oral probiotics from Streptococcus salivarius

Considerable human illness can be linked to the development of oral microbiota disequilibria. The predominant oral cavity commensal, Streptococcus salivarius has emerged as an important source of safe and efficacious probiotics, capable of fostering more balanced, health-associated oral microbiota. Strain K12, the prototype S. salivarius probiotic, originally introduced to counter Streptococcus pyogenes infections, now has an expanded repertoire of health-promoting applications. K12 and several more recently proposed S. salivarius probiotics are now being applied to control diverse bacterial consortia infections including otitis media, halitosis and dental caries. Other potential applications include upregulation of immunological defenses against respiratory viral infections and treatment of oral candidosis. An overview of the key steps required for probiotic development is also presented.

Non-surgical periodontal therapy reduces coronary heart disease risk markers: a randomized controlled trial

AIM

Periodontal disease elevates systemic inflammatory markers strongly associated with coronary heart disease (CHD) risk. The aim of this randomized controlled trial was to investigate the effect of non-surgical periodontal therapy on systemic C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen and white blood cells in CHD patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Angiographically proven CHD patients with periodontitis (n = 317) were randomized to intervention (n = 212) or control group (n = 105). Primary outcome was reduction in serum CRP levels; secondary outcomes were reductions in fibrinogen and white blood cells. Periodontal treatment included scaling, root planing and oral hygiene instructions. Periodontal and systemic parameters were assessed at baseline and at 2-month follow-up. Intent-to-treat (ITT) analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Study was completed by 246 subjects (intervention group = 161; control group = 85). Significant improvements in periodontal and systemic parameters were observed in intervention group. The number of subjects with CRP > 3mg/L in intervention group decreased by 38% and in control group increased by 4%. ITT analysis gave a significant (χ(2) =4.381, p = 0.036) absolute risk reduction of 12.5%.

CONCLUSION

In CHD patients with periodontitis, non-surgical mechanical periodontal therapy significantly reduced systemic levels of C-reactive protein, fibrinogen and white blood cells.

Serum antibody to Porphyromonas gingivalis in chronic kidney disease

Potentially significant associations between periodontal disease and chronic kidney disease (CKD) have been reported in recent studies. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the association between serum antibody to the periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) and CKD in 215 Japanese individuals, aged 79 yrs. Serum antibody levels to P. gingivalis were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. An elevated serum antibody response was defined as the upper quartile and was compared with the bottom three quartiles. Participants were classified as having CKD when their glomerular filtration rate was between 15 and 59 mL/min/1.73 m(2). A multivariable logistic regression model was used to evaluate the association between elevated antibody status and the presence of CKD. Study participants with an elevated serum antibody to P. gingivalis were 2.6 times more likely to have CKD. The adjusted odds ratio of CKD for participants in the highest quartile of serum antibody to P. gingivalis was 2.59 (95% confidence interval, 1.05-6.34) when compared with others in lower quartiles after simultaneous adjustment for other covariates. In conclusion, the present study suggests that elevated serum antibody to P. gingivalis was significantly associated with decreased kidney function in a community-based cohort of elderly Japanese.

Clinical indicators of periodontal disease in patients with coronary heart disease: a 10 years longitudinal study

OBJECTIVES

There is evidence about a possible relationship existing between periodontal diseases and coronary heart disease. The aim of the present longitudinal study was to investigate the changes in periodontal evolution after etiological periodontal treatment, comparing a healthy control group with another having coronary heart disease.

STUDY DESIGN

The study included initially 55 patients of which 44 finished it. They were placed into two groups: Healthy Control Group (HCG) n =9, and Coronary Heart Disease Group (CHDG) n=35. The gingival level (GL), probing depth (PD), clinical attachment level (CAL), plaque index (PI) and bleeding on probing (BOP) were measured to compare the periodontal status in both groups. The patients were examined and etiological periodontal treatment was performed and they were then examined at the end of 1 and 10 years.

STATISTICAL METHOD

A one way-ANOVA and a MR-ANOVA were established; significance p<0.05.

RESULTS

No significant differences between both groups were detected on the first visit (p>0.5). However, at the second visit the CHDG presented a significantly higher PD (p<0.05) and PI (p<0.01). CHDG patients gradually increase PD through time and in comparison to the control group (p<0.041). CHDG patients present a significantly higher CAL loss (p<0.0385) and a significant increase in PI (p<0.0041) at the end of one year, while on the third visit no significant differences were detected in any of these indices. Likewise, a similar fact can be observed on evaluating BOP at the end of ten years causal treatment, a smaller decrease in the cardiac group was observed in regards to the initial values (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Patients with coronary heart disease showed a worse evolution of periodontal indices than healthy ones, when referring to probing depth, plaque index and bleeding on probing index.

Hospitalized mental health patients and oral health

The purpose of this review of the literature is to present a contemporary perspective related to the nursing care of hospitalized mental health patients who have risk of developing oral health issues. Mental illness is a major health concern worldwide. Compounding this health issue, mental health patients/clients demonstrate avoidant behaviours related to oral health, and the symptoms of mental illness can be a compounding factor. Oral health and oral inflammatory disease are the result of lifestyle and behaviour and mental disorders affect both lifestyle and behaviour. The search used the search terms oral health AND nursing AND mental illness AND Published Date 2005 to 2010. For those who experience mental illness oral health assessment is not routinely practised by clinicians. The importance of special attention to dental problems for people with mental disorders has also been stressed by researchers since the lifespan of people with serious mental disorders is shortened compared to the general population. Oral health care is an important part of treatment. Routine oral care for hospitalized patients is imperative, and this is usually the responsibility of nurses without sufficient knowledge in oral care or comprehensive protocols to follow.

Host-defense peptides in skin secretions of African clawed frogs (Xenopodinae, Pipidae)

African clawed frogs of the Xenopodinae (Xenopus+Silurana) constitute a well-defined system in which to study the evolutionary trajectory of duplicated genes and are a source of antimicrobial peptides with therapeutic potential. Allopolyploidization events within the Xenopodinae have given rise to tetraploid, octoploid, and dodecaploid species. The primary structures and distributions of host-defense peptides from the tetraploid frogs Xenopus borealis, Xenopus clivii, Xenopus laevis, Xenopus muelleri, "X. muelleri West", and Xenopus petersii may be compared with those from the octoploid frogs Xenopus amieti and X. andrei. Similarly, components in skin secretions from the diploid frog Silurana tropicalis may be compared with those from the tetraploid frog Silurana paratropicalis. All Xenopus antimicrobial peptides may be classified in the magainin, peptide glycine-leucine-amide (PGLa), caerulein-precursor fragment (CPF), and xenopsin-precursor fragment (XPF) families. However, the numbers of paralogs from the octoploid frogs were not significantly greater than the corresponding numbers from the tetraploid frogs. Magainins were not identified in skin secretions of Silurana frogs and the multiplicity of the PGLa, CPF, and XPF peptides from S. paratropicalis was not greater than that of S. tropicalis. The data indicate, therefore, that nonfunctionalization (gene silencing) has been the most common fate of antimicrobial peptide genes following polyploidization. While some duplicated gene products retain high antimicrobial potency (subfunctionalization), the very low activity of others suggests that they may be evolving towards a new biological role (neofunctionalization). CPF-AM1 and PGLa-AM1 from X. amieti show potential for development into anti-infective agents for use against antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacteria.