Strategy for Reoperative Free Flaps after Failure of a First Flap:

[Perioperative Assessment and Management of Hypercoagulability and Thrombophilia in Microsurgery: Consensus Report of the German-Speaking Society for Reconstructive Microsurgery (GSRM)]

Uninterrupted blood flow through microsurgically anastomosed vessels is crucial for the postoperative success of reconstructive microsurgery. Contrary to the highly standardized anastomosis techniques, the pivotal partner discipline of evidence-based microsurgical haemostaseology and haemorrheology is still in its infancy. Prospective clinical studies yielding evidence-based recommendations are notably lacking. Currently, perioperative management in microsurgery is based solely on site-specific empirical experience. The collective aim of these diverse efforts is the preoperative identification of increased coagulation (hypercoagulability) or clotting activities (thrombophilia) and the development of relevant anticoagulation strategies. During the 43rd Annual Meeting of the German-Speaking Working Group for Microsurgery (DAM) in November 2022 in Frankfurt, experts in microsurgery, haemostaseology, and anaesthesia deliberated on the fundamentals of coagulation and physiology. Also, alongside a literature review, consensus recommendations for the perioperative management of hypercoagulopathies were established. Subsequently, methodologies were assessed within the panel, criteria for decision-making were gathered, and, ultimately, a consensus recommendation by DAM regarding a perioperative algorithm was devised, which is detailed in this position paper.

Secondary solution for breast reconstruction following total DIEP flap loss: A single-center experience after 3270 DIEP flaps

BACKGROUND

Total deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap failure is a significant concern in autologous breast reconstruction. Literature on secondary reconstruction options following total flap failure is limited. This study outlines the outcomes of patients who underwent reconstruction post-DIEP flap failure at our institution.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of patients receiving autologous breast reconstruction between 2004 and 2021. We aimed to identify causes of total DIEP flap failure, outcomes of revision surgery, and outcomes of secondary breast reconstruction procedures.

RESULTS

From 2004 to 2021, 3456 free flaps for breast reconstruction were performed, with 3270 being DIEP flaps for 2756 patients. DIEP flap failure was observed in 40 cases (1.22%). Bilateral reconstructions had a higher failure rate (2.31%) than unilateral (0.72%). The primary cause was intraoperative complications during flap harvest (18 cases), followed by insufficient arterial perfusion (seven cases). Other causes included postoperative hematoma (seven cases), venous congestion (six cases), and late-onset fat necrosis (two cases). Post-failure, five patients received a second free flap with three cases of repeated flap failure. Twenty patients received implant-based reconstruction with two cases of reconstruction failure, while seven patients received a pedicled latissimus dorsi (LD) flap reconstructions with no cases of reconstruction failure. Eight patients declined further reconstruction.

CONCLUSION

A second free flap post-DIEP failure was associated with a high risk of reconstruction failure, suggesting the need for careful patient selection. Implant-based and pedicled LD flap seem to be reliable secondary reconstruction options.

Staphylococcus Scalded Skin Syndrome-Induced Thrombosis Leading to Free Flap Complications: A Case Report and Review

Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) is a clinical term used for a spectrum of blistering skin conditions induced by the epidermolytic toxins of the Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. The complications of SSSS include thrombosis; however, the pathophysiology of this is still poorly understood. We present a case of free anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap failure in a patient as a result of widespread flap thrombosis associated with staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS). This is the first reported case of free flap failure associated with SSSS. Free flap failure due to acquired prothrombotic conditions, such as infection, is a rare and potentially under-reported phenomenon. This article aims to further explore the role of both thrombophilias and provoked thrombotic events in free flap failure. A review of the literature will also be presented, and cases of free flap failure in patients with infection-induced vascular complications will be summarised.

Standardized Pre-clinical Surgical Animal Model Protocol to Investigate the Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Ischemic Flap Healing

BACKGROUND

Some of the most complex surgical interventions to treat trauma and cancer include the use of locoregional pedicled and free autologous tissue transfer flaps. While the techniques used for these reconstructive surgery procedures have improved over time, flap complications and even failure remain a significant clinical challenge. Animal models are useful in studying the pathophysiology of ischemic flaps, but when repeatability is a primary focus of a study, conventional in-vivo designs, where one randomized subset of animals serves as a treatment group while a second subset serves as a control, are at a disadvantage instigated by greater subject-to-subject variability. Our goal was to provide a step-by-step methodological protocol for creating an alternative standardized, more economical, and transferable pre-clinical animal research model of excisional full-thickness wound healing following a simulated autologous tissue transfer which includes the primary ischemia, reperfusion, and secondary ischemia events with the latter mimicking flap salvage procedure.

RESULTS

Unlike in the most frequently used classical unilateral McFarlane's caudally based dorsal random pattern skin flap model, in the herein described bilateral epigastric fasciocutaneous advancement flap (BEFAF) model, one flap heals under normal and a contralateral flap-under perturbed conditions or both flaps heal under conditions that vary by one within-subjects factor. We discuss the advantages and limitations of the proposed experimental approach and, as a part of model validation, provide the examples of its use in laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) axial pattern flap healing studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This technically challenging but feasible reconstructive surgery model eliminates inter-subject variability, while concomitantly minimizing the number of animals needed to achieve adequate statistical power. BEFAFs may be used to investigate the spatiotemporal cellular and molecular responses to complex tissue injury, interventions simulating clinically relevant flap complications (e.g., vascular thrombosis) as well as prophylactic, therapeutic or surgical treatment (e.g., flap delay) strategies in the presence or absence of confounding risk factors (e.g., substance abuse, irradiation, diabetes) or favorable wound-healing promoting activities (e.g., exercise). Detailed visual instructions in BEFAF protocol may serve as an aid for teaching medical or academic researchers basic vascular microsurgery techniques that focus on precision, tremor management and magnification.

Reoperative Microsurgical Free Flap Surgery: Lessons Learned

ABSTRACT

Microsurgical free flap surgery has revolutionized reconstructive surgery at most academic centers worldwide. However, free flap failures still occur even in the hands of the most experienced microsurgeon. Although we have achieved a great deal of success performing microsurgical free flap reconstruction for various indications, complications from initial free flap surgery that result in reoperation remain a small, but steady percentage. Venous flap congestion is one of the most challenging conditions that result in free flap failure if not resolved promptly. It can be caused by several conditions, and salvage for venous congestion is often difficult and time consuming. Over 20 years, the senior author has encountered 2 unique situations that resulted in venous congestion of the flap requiring reoperative surgery for flap salvage or a second free flap. Several medical conditions can compromise free flap surgery and result in total flap loss. The senior author has also encountered 2 medical conditions resulting in total flap loss. However, both patients received successful second free tissue transfers when combined with unique perioperative management strategies. It is our hope that this review will highlight some unique management strategies for reoperative microsurgical free tissue transfer and serve as "lessons learned" for initial salvage procedures and a second free tissue transfer. We also hope our reoperative approach demonstrated in this review will help the future generation of microsurgeons to avoid such complications altogether so that overall outcome after microsurgical free flap surgery can further be improved.

Microsurgical Strategies after Free Flap Failure in Soft Tissue Reconstruction of the Lower Extremity: A 17-Year Single-Center Experience

Background: There is no clear consensus on the optimal surgical strategy for providing safe coverage in salvage free flap surgery after total free flap failure. Methods: A retrospective study was conducted to evaluate patients with total failure of the primary free flap in lower extremity reconstruction between 2000 and 2017. Results: In a cohort of 1.016 patients, we identified 43 cases of total flap failure (4.2%). A total of 30 patients received a salvage free flap with a success rate of 83.3% (25/30). One patient received a secondary salvage free flap. Overall limb salvage after primary free flap loss was 83.7% (36/43). Conclusions: Microsurgical management of free flap loss in the lower extremity is challenging and requires a decisive re-evaluation of risk factors and alternative strategies. This should include reconsidering the flap choice with a tendency towards traditional and safe workhorse flaps, a low-threshold switch to different recipient vessels, including arteriovenous (AV) loops, bypasses (especially in case of venous insufficiency) and back-up procedures, such as negative pressure wound therapy or dermal regeneration templates with skin grafting in cases of lower demand and critically ill patients. We derived one suggestion from our previous practice: replacing perforator flaps with axial pattern flaps (“safe workhorses”).

Autologous Mandible Reconstruction in a Hypercoagulable Patient following Multiple Failed Free Flaps

Coagulopathies affect 3% of free flap patients and are among the leading causes of free flap failure. This report describes the case of a head and neck cancer patient that experienced two remote free flap failures before successful autologous mandibular reconstruction. Following identification of an unrecognized thrombophilic state, a focused anticoagulation strategy was executed, including an intraoperative heparin drip, stringent postoperative maintenance of Factor Xa levels between 0.3 and 0.5 IU per mL, and transition to an outpatient enoxaparin regimen of 1 mg per kg twice daily for 1.5 months following surgery. Here, we demonstrate that free tissue transfer following multiple previous failed attempts in the setting of hypercoagulability remains a viable reconstructive option with close interdisciplinary collaboration, close clinical monitoring, and patient-specific antithrombotic protocols.

Rotational Thromboelastometry Derivative Fibrinogen-Platelet Ratio Predicts Thrombosis in Microsurgery

BACKGROUND

 Early detection of thrombotic events is of paramount importance for microsurgical procedures. Here, we present findings that underscore the value of rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM) to aid in decision-making for pre- and postoperative anticoagulation, as well for patients with suspected hypercoagulability.

METHODS

 We prospectively collected pre- and postoperative ROTEM values on all free flap cases at the University of California, San Francisco, from 2015 to 2016. Patient age, body mass index, comorbidities, operative reports, risk factors, thrombotic complications, and outcomes were collected from electronic medical records. Two-sample t-tests were used to compare ROTEM values between cohorts. Modeling for sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy was done for threshold fibrinogen-to-platelet ratio (FPR).

RESULTS

 Of 52 patients who underwent free-tissue transfer, 15 had a thrombotic event either intraoperatively or postoperatively that required revision of the vascular anastomosis. Eight patients were clinically hypercoagulable preoperatively, seven of which had a thrombotic event. Several pre- and postoperative ROTEM values differed significantly between thrombotic and nonthrombotic cases. Preoperative (p = 0.027) and postoperative (p = 0.013) FPR were statistically significant when comparing the thrombotic to the nonthrombotic cohort. Threshold FPR ≥ 30 was the most sensitive and FPR ≥ 40 was the most specific.

CONCLUSION

 Our study affirms other studies that established ROTEM as an effective predictive tool for thrombotic events during free-tissue transfer. However, a lower threshold for FPR improves catchment of thrombotic events and flap failure with acceptable sensitivity. Our results support the routine use of ROTEM for detecting hypercoagulability in patients who would potentially benefit from intervention to prevent thrombotic complications.

Reconstruction of Extensive Soft Tissue Defects of Lower Extremity With the Extended Anterolateral Thigh Flap

The anterolateral thigh flap is a classic flap used for various reconstruction defects. However, the flap viability of extended large skin paddles (ie, 240 cm²) was doubted by many surgeons. This study reports successful experience of reconstructing extensive soft tissue defects of lower extremity using extended large skin paddles. Twelve consecutive patients who had undergone reconstruction of defects using an extended anterolateral thigh flap were identified. Patient characteristics (age, sex, defect location, injured structures, and type of flap) and outcome data were analyzed retrospectively. One artery and 2 accompanying veins were anastomosed to vascularize each flap. Follow-up periods ranged from 10 to 91 months postoperatively. The average size of the flaps was 268.75 cm² (range = 220-391 cm²). All flaps were perforator flaps with one perforator except that 2 perforators were used in 3 patients. Two patients suffered partial flap necrosis of the distal portion with delayed healing. In conclusion, the extended anterolateral thigh flap is a considerable option for massive defects requiring composite tissue coverage. This flap is advantageous for reconstructing various complex defects in the lower extremities, providing a pliable and vascularized tissue to cover exposed extensive defects including tendons, nerves, and bones.

Free Flaps in Lower Extremity Reconstruction

Free tissue transfer to the lower extremity for limb salvage remains challenging. A comprehensive approach includes patient selection, flap selection, selection of the recipient vessels, flap dissection, flap preparation, microvascular anastomosis, flap inset, immediate postoperative care, intermediate postoperative care, and further follow-up care. Each step in this comprehensive approach has its unique considerations and should be executed equally to ensure an optimal outcome. Once acquired, some clinical experience along with adequate microsurgical skill, good surgical judgment, well instructed and step-by-step intraoperative execution, and a protocol-driven practice, successful free tissue transfer to the lower extremity can be accomplished.

Flap Failure and Salvage in Head and Neck Reconstruction

With advanced head and neck ablative surgery comes the challenge to find an ideal reconstructive option that will optimize functional and aesthetic outcomes. Contemporary microvascular reconstructive surgery with free tissue transfer has become the standard for complex head and neck reconstruction. With continued refinements in surgical techniques, larger surgical volumes, and technological advancements, free flap success rates have exceeded 95%. Despite these high success rates, postoperative flap loss is a feared complication requiring the surgeon to be aware of potential options for successful salvage. The purpose of this article is to review free flap failure and ways to optimize surgical salvage in the scenario of flap compromise.

Reconstruction of extensive plantar forefoot defects with free anterolateral thigh flap

PURPOSE

The aim of the soft tissue reconstruction of plantar forefoot should yield weight-bearing function and aesthetic contour, which poses a significant challenge for reconstructive surgeons to provide an appropriate flap according to the "like for like" reconstructive principle. Local flaps and pedicled flaps have been described for the reconstruction of small- to medium-sized defects of plantar forefoot and achieved optimal results. However, reconstruction of extensive defects of plantar forefoot is rarely investigated. In this study, we present our experience using the free anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap in the reconstruction of extensive defects of plantar forefoot.

METHODS

Between November 2011 and April 2017, 9 patients were treated for extensive soft tissue defects in the plantar forefoot areas with ALT flaps. The mean age at the time of surgery was 39.3 years (range, 25-64 years).

RESULTS

The follow-up period ranged from 12 to 77 months, with a mean of 31 months. All flaps survived well, and the patients were satisfied with the aesthetic and functional results. The size of the flaps ranged from 63 to 455 cm, with a mean of 197.7 cm. Seven patients with no bony involvement began to gradually weight-bear at 3 weeks postoperatively. During the follow-up time, postoperative ulceration at the reconstructed weight-bearing areas was not encountered.

CONCLUSION

The ALT flap is a reliable option for treatment of extensive defects of plantar forefoot, resulting in an optimal functional and aesthetic outcome. Even when a total plantar loss exits, excellent results can be achieved.

Free flap thrombosis in patients with hypercoagulability: A systematic review

Background

Even with satisfactory anastomosis technique and adequate experience of the surgeon, flap loss due to thrombosis can still occur due to the patient’s underlying condition. Patients with hypercoagulability due to etiologies such as malignancy, hereditary conditions, and acquired thrombophilia are among those who could benefit from free flap procedures. This review aimed to evaluate the risk of free flap thrombosis in patients with hypercoagulability and to identify the most effective thromboprophylaxis regimen.

Methods

This review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guideline. The PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases were explored. Types of free flaps, types of hypercoagulable states, thrombosis prevention protocols, thrombosis complication rates, and flap vitality outcomes were reviewed. Samples from the included studies were pooled to calculate the relative risk of free flap thrombosis complications in patients with hypercoagulability compared to those without hypercoagulability.

Results

In total, 885 articles underwent title, abstract, and full-text screening. Six articles met the inclusion criteria. The etiologies of hypercoagulability varied. The overall incidence of thrombosis and flap loss in hypercoagulable patients was 13% and 10.3%, respectively. The thrombosis risk was two times higher in hypercoagulable patients (P=0.074) than in controls. Thromboprophylaxis regimens were variable. Heparin was the most commonly used regimen.

Conclusions

Hypercoagulability did not significantly increase the risk of free flap thrombosis. The most effective thromboprophylaxis regimen could not be determined due to variation in the regimens. Further well-designed studies should be conducted to confirm this finding.

Free Tissue Breast Reconstruction

Free tissue transfer serves as a modern workhorse for breast reconstruction. Advancements in microsurgical technique have allowed for the development of free flap procedures that produce an aesthetic breast while minimizing donor site morbidity. Here, the authors review the use of different free flap procedures for breast reconstruction with a focus on the preferred and most commonly used flap, the deep inferior epigastric perforator flap. Each flap has its advantages and drawbacks, and certain patient risk factors increase postoperative complications. Other techniques of breast reconstruction including pedicled flaps and adjunctive fat grafting are also briefly discussed.

Preoperative Platelet Count Predicts Lower Extremity Free Flap Thrombosis: A Multi-Institutional Experience

BACKGROUND

Thrombocytosis in patients undergoing lower extremity free tissue transfer may be associated with increased risk of microvascular complications. This study assessed whether preoperative platelet counts predict lower extremity free flap thrombosis.

METHODS

All patients undergoing lower extremity free tissue transfer at Duke University from 1997 to 2013 and at the University of Pennsylvania from 2002 to 2013 were retrospectively identified. Logistic regression was used to assess whether preoperative platelet counts independently predict flap thrombosis, controlling for baseline and operative factors.

RESULTS

A total of 565 patients underwent lower extremity free tissue transfer, with an overall flap thrombosis rate of 16 percent (n = 91). Elevated preoperative platelet counts were independently associated with both intraoperative thrombosis (500 ± 120 versus 316 ± 144 × 10/liter; p < 0.001) and postoperative thrombosis (410 ± 183 versus 320 ± 143 × 10/liter; p = 0.040) in 215 patients who sustained acute lower extremity trauma within 30 days before reconstruction. In acute trauma patients, preoperative platelet counts predicted a four-fold increased risk of intraoperative thrombosis (cutoff value, 403 × 10/liter; OR, 4.08; p < 0.001) and a two-fold increased risk of postoperative thrombosis (cutoff value, 361 × 10/liter; OR, 2.16; p = 0.005). In patients who did not sustain acute trauma, preoperative platelet counts predicted a four-fold increased risk of intraoperative thrombosis (cutoff value, 352 × 10/liter; OR, 3.82; p = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute trauma patients with elevated preoperative platelet counts are at increased risk for lower extremity free flap complications. Prospective evaluation is warranted for guiding risk stratification and targeted treatment strategies.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Risk, III.

The Effect of Activated Protein C on Attenuation of Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in a Rat Muscle Flap Model

Ischemia-reperfusion injury is often the final and irreversible factor causing flap failure in microsurgery. The salvage of a microsurgical flap with an ischemia-reperfusion injury contributes to the success of microsurgical flap transfers. Activated protein C (APC), a serine protease with anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory activities, has been shown to improve ischemic flap survival. To date, APC has yet to be applied to models of free flap with ischemia-reperfusion injury. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of APC on gracilis flap ischemia-reperfusion injury induced by gracilis vessels clamping and reopening. Sixty male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 2 groups. After 4 hours of clamping for ischemia, flaps were reperfused and recombinant human APC (25 μg/kg) or saline was injected in the flaps through pedicles. At 0, 1, 4, 18, and 24 hours after injection (n = 6 for each time point), the tissue samples were harvested. The muscle viability at 24 hours in saline group was 54.8% (15.1%), whereas the APC-treated group was 90.0% (4.3%) (P < 0.05). The induced nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA expression increased with the time after reperfusion, which were 0.93 (0.25) to 2.09 (0.22) in saline group, and 0.197 (0.15) to 0.711 (0.15) in the APC-treated group. iNOS mRNA expression in the APC-treated group was significantly higher than the saline group at 1, 18, and 24 hours (P < 0.05). Numerous inflammatory cells were observed infiltrating and invading the muscle fibers in the saline group more than the APC-treated group. Increased number of polymorphonuclear cells was also noted in the saline group compared with the APC-treated group (P < 0.05). In conclusion, APC treatment can significantly attenuate ischemia-reperfusion injury and increase the survival of the free flap through down-regulating iNOS mRNA expression and reducing the inflammatory cells. Further research is still needed to be done on various mechanisms in which APC is protective to prevent tissue damage.

Is the preoperative MPV value related to early thrombus formation in microvascular anastomosis?

OBJECTIVE

One of the most common encountered problems in free flap surgeries is anastomotic thrombosis. The mean platelet volume (MPV) may indicate the concentration of intra-platelet proactive substances and the thrombogenic potential of the platelets. MPV is used as a clinical monitoring index in routine blood counts, it has not yet been effectively used in free flap surgery.

METHODS

This study evaluates the relationship between the preoperative MPV value and anastomotic thrombus formation during the postoperative 48 hours in 32 free flap operations from September 2013 to September 2014. The mean patient age was 36.75 years. The preoperative MPV value, which was obtained from the complete blood count, was recorded and correlation of MPV and postoperative thrombus formation was investigated.

RESULTS

Four anastomotic thrombus were encountered in 34 free flaps during the postoperative 48 hours. Two of them were salvaged by performing thrombectomy and/or administration of i.v. heparin. There was no statistical relationship between MPV value and postoperative thrombus formation during 48 hours follow-up (p = 0.925).

CONCLUSION

Even though this study didn't find a correlation between preoperative MPV value and postoperative early anastomotic thrombus, it would be helpful to validate the results using multi-centre and comprehensive studies with larger patient cohorts.

The Role of Muscle Flaps for Salvage of Failed Perforator Free Flaps

Background:

Despite the most heroic efforts, sometimes free flaps fail. Perforator free flaps are not invincible and can suffer the same fate. The real challenge is how to decide what is the next best choice for achieving the desired outcome.

Methods:

Over the past decade, 298 free perforator flaps were used in our institution. Total failure occurred in 16 patients, and partial failure requiring a second free flap occurred in an additional 6 patients for a true success rate of 93%. All failures had some form of secondary vascularized tissue transfer, which included the use of muscle flaps in 9 (41%) different patients.

Results:

Initial flap salvage after a failed perforator free flap was attempted with 12 perforator and 5 muscle free flaps as well as 1 perforator and 2 muscle local flaps. These were not all successful, with loss of 3 muscle free flaps and 3 perforator flaps. Tertiary free flap coverage was successful in 3 cases using 2 muscle flaps and 1 perforator free flap. Local fasciocutaneous flaps or primary wound closure was used in the remaining individuals.

Conclusions:

Microsurgical tissue transfers can be the most rewarding and at the same time the most challenging reconstructive endeavor. Persistence in achieving the desired outcome can require multiple steps. Perforator flaps are an important asset to obtain this goal. However, muscle flaps can still be a useful alternative, and the message is that they should not be overlooked as sometimes a viable option.

Multipaddled anterolateral thigh chimeric flap for reconstruction of complex defects in head and neck

The anterolateral thigh flap has been the workhouse flap for coverage of soft-tissue defects in head and neck for decades. However, the reconstruction of multiple and complex soft-tissue defects in head and neck with multipaddled anterolateral thigh chimeric flaps is still a challenge for reconstructive surgeries. Here, a clinical series of 12 cases is reported in which multipaddled anterolateral thigh chimeric flaps were used for complex soft-tissue defects with several separately anatomic locations in head and neck. Of the 12 cases, 7 patients presented with trismus were diagnosed as advanced buccal cancer with oral submucous fibrosis, 2 tongue cancer cases were found accompanied with multiple oral mucosa lesions or buccal cancer, and 3 were hypopharyngeal cancer with anterior neck skin invaded. All soft-tissue defects were reconstructed by multipaddled anterolateral thigh chimeric flaps, including 9 tripaddled anterolateral thigh flaps and 3 bipaddled flaps. The mean length of skin paddle was 19.2 (range: 14–23) cm and the mean width was 4.9 (range: 2.5–7) cm. All flaps survived and all donor sites were closed primarily. After a mean follow-up time of 9.1 months, there were no problems with the donor or recipient sites. This study supports that the multipaddled anterolateral thigh chimeric flap is a reliable and good alternative for complex and multiple soft-tissue defects of the head and neck.

Extended anterolateral thigh flaps for reconstruction of extensive defects of the foot and ankle

The anterolateral thigh flap has been used for coverage of defects in the foot and ankle for years. Conventional extended anterolateral thigh flaps do not undergo thinning procedures, which limit their application. Here, a clinical series of 24 patients is reported in which extended anterolateral thigh flaps were used for posttraumatic foot and ankle reconstruction. Of the 24 flaps, 14 were simple extended anterolateral thigh fasciocutaneous flaps and 10 were thinned extended anterolateral thigh flaps. One artery and two veins, including a superficial vein and an accompanying vein, were anastomosed to vascularize each flap. Follow-up of the 24 patients ranged from 10 months to 4 years postoperatively. All 24 flaps survived successfully, except one case that had partial flap necrosis distally due to excessive thinning. The cutaneous flap territory ranged from 250 cm² to 400 cm² (mean, 297 cm²). Only one patient received a debulking procedure. No ulceration occurred in any of the flaps due to contact with the shoe. The extended anterolateral thigh flap is a good alternative for extensive soft tissue defects of the foot and ankle. This study also supports the high reliability and excellent vascular supply of moderate thinned extended ALT flaps.

Unilateral failures in bilateral microvascular breast reconstruction

BACKGROUND

As rates of bilateral prophylactic mastectomy and contralateral prophylactic mastectomy have increased over the past decade, bilateral microvascular breast reconstruction has played an increasing role in breast cancer care. Data on unilateral flap failure in bilateral microvascular breast reconstructions have been lacking, and strategies to address the challenges encountered in this situation are needed.

METHODS

A retrospective review of all simultaneous bilateral microvascular breast reconstructions performed by the senior author (M.Y.N.) from July of 1999 to July of 2008 was conducted. Flap failures were identified and reviewed for operative parameters, causes of flap loss, and techniques used for secondary reconstruction.

RESULTS

The authors identified 171 consecutive patients who underwent bilateral microvascular breast reconstruction between July of 1999 and July of 2008. In these patients, 342 flaps were attempted, including 108 free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flaps, 228 deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flaps, and six superior gluteal artery perforator flaps. Twelve flaps failed or were aborted intraoperatively, yielding an overall failure rate of 3.5 percent. The authors' unilateral microsurgical breast reconstruction failure rate over this period was 2.1 percent (eight of 386). No bilateral failures occurred. Causes of flap failure included venous insufficiency (six of 12), lack of adequate perforator anatomy (three of 12), and perforator injury during dissection (two of 12). Secondary reconstruction with tissue expanders and implants was performed in 11 of 12 patients who underwent an average of 2.25 additional procedures to complete reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

Flap failure is more common in bilateral reconstructions than in unilateral reconstructions, largely secondary to the obligation to use both sides of the abdominal donor tissue. When flap failure does occur, techniques to optimize prosthetic reconstruction can ultimately result in successful bilateral reconstructions despite free flap failure.

Salvage (tertiary) breast reconstruction after implant failure

BACKGROUND

Salvage breast reconstruction is defined as a complete revision of a previous reconstruction in case of unsatisfactory results or failure of primary or secondary breast reconstruction. We have termed this 'tertiary breast reconstruction'. This article presents our experience with tertiary reconstructions, including the indications, method of reconstruction and outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective note review was performed for all patients who underwent breast reconstruction with autologous tissue under one surgeon between 2002 and 2009 at the University Hospital, Ghent. Out of these 688 patients, 54 patients (7.8%) required tertiary surgery with autologous tissue after failure of implant breast reconstruction.

RESULTS

The first reconstructive surgery involved 38 unilateral and 16 bilateral cases with a total of 70 operated breasts. A further 11 breasts were reconstructed following risk-reducing mastectomy or at the patient's request for aesthetic reasons. Out of 81 free-flap reconstructions, the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) flap was the most harvested at 66 (81%). The mean±SD operating time was 7.2±1.8 h and the mean hospital stay was 7.2±1.9 days. One total flap loss (1.2%) occurred. The mean follow-up was 31 months with a range between 3 months and 6 years. During follow-up, 30 patients (55.5%) needed secondary procedures to improve the aesthetic outcome. Donor-site corrections were performed in 18 patients (33%). Revisions of the breast flap were performed in 29 patients (53%).

CONCLUSIONS

Restoring the breast envelope and footprint, in addition to excision of scar tissue, is the key step in breast reconstruction. Further corrections are required depending on the amount of the initial damage to the breast or subsequent postoperative complications.

Management strategies following microsurgical flap failure

Although increasingly rare, failed microsurgical flaps are a complicated clinical problem when they occur. Review of reports of management following microsurgical flap failure offers an outline of options. A substantial number of breast and extremity patients elect abandonment of reconstruction. The majority of head and neck, breast, and extremity patients proceed to nonmicrosurgical reconstructive options. Head and neck patients (38%) and 35% of extremity patients elect to have second microsurgical flaps, and 84% of these procedures were successful. Patient management following microsurgical flap failure includes strategic abandonment of reconstruction in some cases, use of conventional procedures in a majority of cases, and further microsurgical procedures in one-third of cases. The reconstructive surgeon should have this range of possibilities available for these difficult cases.