Dissociating neural correlates of retrieval practice and elaborative study in associative recognition memory

The benefits of elaborative encoding over retrieval practice for associative learning

The practice of retrieval has been shown to be highly beneficial for memory retention, but it has seldom been compared with learning strategies other than repeated study. Here, we compared the benefits of retrieval practice (without feedback) with the benefits of two elaborative encoding tasks for word pair learning. Specifically, after studying series of randomly combined word pairs, participants performed an interactive-imagery (Experiments 1-2) or sentence-generation task (Experiments 3-5), retrieval practice, and a letter-counting or a rereading task. In Experiments 1-4, the word pairs were shown after a 24-h interval for testing in its original form or with the second word replaced by the second word from another pair, and participants performed recognition (old/new) followed by associative memory tests (intact/rearranged). In Experiment 5, memory was tested in a final cued-recall task administered shortly after initial learning. The interactive-imagery task was as beneficial as retrieval practice for recognition, but consistently more beneficial than retrieval for performance at the associative task. Sentence generation, on the other hand, produced greater performances than retrieval practice in recognition, associative memory, and cued-recall tests. These findings reveal that simple elaborative encoding tasks, such as imagining scenes or generating sentences, can be more beneficial for memory retention than retrieval practice without feedback.

Judgments of learning reactively affect memory by inducing covert retrieval

Making judgments of learning (JOLs) can directly influence memory, a phenomenon termed the reactivity effect of JOLs. However, controversy surrounds the mechanism behind JOL reactivity. This study employs related and unrelated word pairs as learning materials to compare memory outcomes across different JOL conditions. We contrasted the traditional JOL reactivity paradigm with a covert retrieval induction paradigm to explore whether JOLs impact memory through covert retrieval. In Experiment 1, data from 40 participants (18 females, 22 males) were analyzed, revealed distinct patterns between the two paradigms. When word pairs are presented entirely, the JOL group outperforms the no-JOL group in memorizing related pairs, aligning with traditional JOL reactivity. Conversely, when target words are omitted, the JOL group's memory resembles that of the no-JOL group. This comparison suggested that JOLs may prompt covert retrieval. In Experiment 2, which involved manipulating the retrieval strength, data from 52 participants (46 females, 6 males) were analyzed, yielded results consistent with those of Experiment 1. We conclude that covert retrieval significantly contributes to the JOL reactivity effect, enhancing memory through JOL-induced covert retrieval.

An event-related potential study of the testing effect: Electrophysiological evidence for context-dependent processes changing throughout repeated practice

The testing effect refers to a special form of performance improvement following practice. Specifically, repeated retrieval attempts improve long-term memory. In the present study we examined the underlying mechanisms of the testing effect as a function of time by investigating the electrophysiological correlates of repeated retrieval practice. We additionally investigated the ERP waveforms of the repeated practice phase as a function of the accuracy on the final test in a "difference due to memory" (Dm) analysis. We found a parietally distributed, increased positive amplitude between 500-700 ms, and a more positive parietal wave between 700 and 1000 ms in the later relative to the early phases of retrieval practice. We found parietal Dm effects in the same two time windows in the retrieval practice condition with a more positive amplitude predicting retrieval success on the final test. We interpret the earlier waveform as a component associated with episodic recollection and the later ERP as a component related to post-retrieval evaluation processes. Our results demonstrate the important role of these retrieval-related processes in the facilitating effect of retrieval practice on later retrieval, and show that the involvement of these processes changes throughout practice.