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Verleih M, Visnovska T, Nguinkal JA, Rebl A, Goldammer T, Andreassen R. The Discovery and Characterization of Conserved and Novel miRNAs in the Different Developmental Stages and Organs of Pikeperch ( Sander lucioperca). Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:189. [PMID: 38203361 PMCID: PMC10778745 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that act as post-transcriptional gene expression regulators. Genes regulated in vertebrates include those affecting growth and development or stress and immune response. Pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) is a species that is increasingly being considered for farming in recirculation aquaculture systems. We characterized the pikeperch miRNA repertoire to increase the knowledge of the genomic mechanisms affecting performance and health traits by applying small RNA sequencing to different developmental stages and organs. There were 234 conserved and 8 novel miRNA genes belonging to 104 families. A total of 375 unique mature miRNAs were processed from these genes. Many mature miRNAs showed high relative abundances or were significantly more expressed at early developmental stages, like the miR-10 and miR-430 family, let-7, the miRNA clusters 106-25-93, and 17-19-92. Several miRNAs associated with immune responses (e.g., slu-mir-731-5p, slu-mir-2188-5p, and slu-mir-8159-5p) were enriched in the spleen. The mature miRNAs slu-mir-203a-3p and slu-mir-205-5p were enriched in gills. These miRNAs are similarly abundant in many vertebrates, indicating that they have shared regulatory functions. There was also a significantly increased expression of the disease-associated miR-462/miR-731 cluster in response to hypoxia stress. This first pikeperch miRNAome reference resource paves the way for future functional studies to identify miRNA-associated variations that can be utilized in marker-assisted breeding programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke Verleih
- Institute of Genome Biology, Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany; (M.V.); (A.R.)
| | - Tina Visnovska
- Bioinformatics Core Facility, Oslo University Hospital, 0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Julien A. Nguinkal
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany;
| | - Alexander Rebl
- Institute of Genome Biology, Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany; (M.V.); (A.R.)
| | - Tom Goldammer
- Institute of Genome Biology, Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany; (M.V.); (A.R.)
- Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Rune Andreassen
- Department of Life Sciences and Health, OsloMet—Oslo Metropolitan University, 0167 Oslo, Norway;
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Brimsholm M, Fjelldal PG, Hansen T, Fraser TKW, Solberg M, Glover K, Koppang EO, Bjørgen H. Red and melanized focal changes in white skeletal muscle in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): Comparative analysis of farmed, wild and hybrid fish reared under identical conditions. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2023; 46:1377-1389. [PMID: 37675872 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Selective breeding plays a vital role in the production of farmed Atlantic salmon and has shown success in many aspects. Still, challenges related to fish health and welfare continue to result in significant economic losses. One such challenge is red and melanized focal changes (RFC/MFC), which result from acute and chronic inflammation, respectively, in the skeletal muscle. Importantly, RFC/MFC has not been observed in wild Atlantic salmon, suggesting that both external and genetic factors may contribute to the development of inflammation. To investigate the underlying cause of RFC/MFC, we conducted a study involving 1854 Atlantic salmon of farmed, wild and hybrid origin. All fish were reared under identical conditions to minimize the influence of external factors. Throughout the production cycle, the fish was monitored for growth parameters and examined for RFC/MFC using macroscopic and histological analysis. We found no association between the experimental groups and the presence of RFC/MFC. Histological investigations revealed melano-macrophages in the soft tissue in freshwater smolt, although no macroscopic discoloration was observed. MFC showed granulomas in various stages, suggesting a complex progression of the condition. In summary, we conclude that RFC/MFC is primarily caused by external factors found in the rearing facilities of farmed Atlantic salmon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malin Brimsholm
- Unit of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Tom Hansen
- Matre Research Station, Institute of Marine Research, Matredal, Norway
| | | | - Monica Solberg
- Population Genetics Research Group, Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - Kevin Glover
- Population Genetics Research Group, Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - Erling Olaf Koppang
- Unit of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Håvard Bjørgen
- Unit of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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3
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Perry WB. Sex, smells and sickness: deceitful mate choice in Nile tilapia. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2021; 99:1537. [PMID: 34791688 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
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Perry WB, Kaufmann J, Solberg MF, Brodie C, Coral Medina AM, Pillay K, Egerton A, Harvey A, Phillips KP, Coughlan J, Egan F, Grealis R, Hutton S, Leseur F, Ryan S, Poole R, Rogan G, Ryder E, Schaal P, Waters C, Wynne R, Taylor M, Prodöhl P, Creer S, Llewellyn M, McGinnity P, Carvalho G, Glover KA. Domestication-induced reduction in eye size revealed in multiple common garden experiments: The case of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar L.). Evol Appl 2021; 14:2319-2332. [PMID: 34603501 PMCID: PMC8477603 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Domestication leads to changes in traits that are under directional selection in breeding programmes, though unintentional changes in nonproduction traits can also arise. In offspring of escaping fish and any hybrid progeny, such unintentionally altered traits may reduce fitness in the wild. Atlantic salmon breeding programmes were established in the early 1970s, resulting in genetic changes in multiple traits. However, the impact of domestication on eye size has not been studied. We measured body size corrected eye size in 4000 salmon from six common garden experiments conducted under artificial and natural conditions, in freshwater and saltwater environments, in two countries. Within these common gardens, offspring of domesticated and wild parents were crossed to produce 11 strains, with varying genetic backgrounds (wild, domesticated, F1 hybrids, F2 hybrids and backcrosses). Size-adjusted eye size was influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Domesticated fish reared under artificial conditions had smaller adjusted eye size when compared to wild fish reared under identical conditions, in both the freshwater and marine environments, and in both Irish and Norwegian experiments. However, in parr that had been introduced into a river environment shortly after hatching and sampled at the end of their first summer, differences in adjusted eye size observed among genetic groups were of a reduced magnitude and were nonsignificant in 2-year-old sea migrating smolts sampled in the river immediately prior to sea entry. Collectively, our findings could suggest that where natural selection is present, individuals with reduced eye size are maladapted and consequently have reduced fitness, building on our understanding of the mechanisms that underlie a well-documented reduction in the fitness of the progeny of domesticated salmon, including hybrid progeny, in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Bernard Perry
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics LaboratorySchool of Biological ScienceBangor UniversityBangor, GwyneddUK
- Water Research InstituteSchool of BiosciencesCardiff UniversityCardiffUK
- Population Genetics Research GroupInstitute of Marine ResearchBergenNorway
| | - Joshka Kaufmann
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | | | - Christopher Brodie
- Ecosystems and Environment Research CentreSchool of Environment and Life SciencesUniversity of SalfordSalfordUK
| | | | - Kirthana Pillay
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics LaboratorySchool of Biological ScienceBangor UniversityBangor, GwyneddUK
| | - Anna Egerton
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics LaboratorySchool of Biological ScienceBangor UniversityBangor, GwyneddUK
| | - Alison Harvey
- Population Genetics Research GroupInstitute of Marine ResearchBergenNorway
| | - Karl P. Phillips
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Jamie Coughlan
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
| | - Fintan Egan
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Ronan Grealis
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Steve Hutton
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
| | - Floriane Leseur
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Sarah Ryan
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | | | - Ger Rogan
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Elizabeth Ryder
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Patrick Schaal
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
- Institute of BiodiversityAnimal Health & Comparative MedicineUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Catherine Waters
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Robert Wynne
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
| | - Martin Taylor
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of East AngliaNorwichUK
| | - Paulo Prodöhl
- Institute for Global Food SecuritySchool of Biological SciencesMedical Biology CentreQueen’s UniversityBelfastUK
| | - Simon Creer
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics LaboratorySchool of Biological ScienceBangor UniversityBangor, GwyneddUK
| | - Martin Llewellyn
- Institute of BiodiversityAnimal Health & Comparative MedicineUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Philip McGinnity
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
- Marine InstituteFurnace, NewportCo. MayoIreland
| | - Gary Carvalho
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics LaboratorySchool of Biological ScienceBangor UniversityBangor, GwyneddUK
| | - Kevin Alan Glover
- Population Genetics Research GroupInstitute of Marine ResearchBergenNorway
- Institute of BiologyUniversity of BergenBergenNorway
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Mahlum S, Vollset KW, Barlaup BT, Skoglund H, Velle G. Salmon on the lam: Drivers of escaped farmed fish abundance in rivers. J Appl Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shad Mahlum
- NORCE Norwegian Research CentreLFI Bergen Norway
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Bergen Bergen Norway
| | | | | | | | - Gaute Velle
- NORCE Norwegian Research CentreLFI Bergen Norway
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Bergen Bergen Norway
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Ayllon F, Solberg MF, Besnier F, Fjelldal PG, Hansen TJ, Wargelius A, Edvardsen RB, Glover KA. Autosomal sdY Pseudogenes Explain Discordances Between Phenotypic Sex and DNA Marker for Sex Identification in Atlantic Salmon. Front Genet 2020; 11:544207. [PMID: 33173531 PMCID: PMC7591749 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.544207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the key role that sex-determination plays in evolutionary processes, it is still poorly understood in many species. In salmonids, which are among the best studied fishes, the master sex-determining gene sexually dimorphic on the Y-chromosome (sdY) has been identified. However, sdY displays unexplained discordance to the phenotypic sex, with a variable frequency of phenotypic females being reported as genetic males. Multiple sex determining loci in Atlantic salmon have also been reported, possibly as a result of recent transposition events in this species. We hypothesized the existence of an autosomal copy of sdY, causing apparent discordance between phenotypic and genetic sex, that is transmitted in accordance with autosomal inheritance. To test this, we developed a qPCR methodology to detect the total number of sdY copies present in the genome. Based on the observed phenotype/genotype frequencies and linkage analysis among 2,025 offspring from 64 pedigree-controlled families of accurately phenotyped Atlantic salmon, we identified both males and females carrying one or two autosomal copies of sdY in addition to the Y-specific copy present in males. Patterns across families were highly consistent with autosomal inheritance. These autosomal sdY copies appear to have lost the ability to function as a sex determining gene and were only occasionally assigned to the actual sex chromosome in any of the affected families.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kevin Alan Glover
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Perry WB, Solberg MF, Brodie C, Medina AC, Pillay KG, Egerton A, Harvey A, Creer S, Llewellyn M, Taylor M, Carvalho G, Glover KA. Disentangling the effects of sex, life history and genetic background in Atlantic salmon: growth, heart and liver under common garden conditions. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:200811. [PMID: 33204455 PMCID: PMC7657880 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.200811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Livestock domestication has long been a part of agriculture, estimated to have first occurred approximately 10 000 years ago. Despite the plethora of traits studied, there is little understanding of the possible impacts domestication has had on internal organs, which are key determinants of survival. Moreover, the genetic basis of observed associated changes in artificial environments is still puzzling. Here we examine impacts of captivity on two organs in Atlantic salmon (Salar salar) that have been domesticated for approximately 50 years: heart and liver, in addition to growth. We studied multiple families of wild, domesticated, F1 and F2 hybrid, and backcrossed strains of S. salar in replicated common garden tanks during the freshwater and marine stages of development. Heart and liver weight were investigated, along with heart morphology metrics examined in just the wild, domesticated and F1 hybrid strains (heart height and width). Growth was positively linked with the proportion of the domesticated strain, and recombination in F2 hybrids (and the potential disruption of co-adapted gene complexes) did not influence growth. Despite the influence of domestication on growth, we found no evidence for domestication-driven divergence in heart or liver morphology. However, sexual dimorphism was detected in heart morphology, and after controlling for body size, females exhibited significantly larger heart weight and heart width when compared with males. Wild females also had an increased heart height when compared with wild males, and this was not observed in any other strain. Females sampled in saltwater showed significantly larger heart height with rounder hearts, than saltwater males. Collectively, these results demonstrate an additive basis of growth and, despite a strong influence of domestication on growth, no clear evidence of changes in heart or liver morphology associated with domestication was identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Bernard Perry
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Monica F. Solberg
- Population Genetics Research Group, Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 1870, Nordnes 5817, Bergen, Norway
| | - Christopher Brodie
- Mariani Molecular Ecology Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 5UX, UK
| | - Angela C. Medina
- School of Microbiology, Food Science and Technology Building University College Cork, Cork T12 TP07, Ireland
| | - Kirthana G. Pillay
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Anna Egerton
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Alison Harvey
- Population Genetics Research Group, Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 1870, Nordnes 5817, Bergen, Norway
| | - Simon Creer
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Martin Llewellyn
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Martin Taylor
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Gary Carvalho
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Kevin A. Glover
- Population Genetics Research Group, Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 1870, Nordnes 5817, Bergen, Norway
- Institute of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Brown MS, Evans BS, Afonso LOB. Discordance for genotypic sex in phenotypic female Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is related to a reduced sdY copy number. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9651. [PMID: 32541863 PMCID: PMC7296011 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66406-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The master sex determinant in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), sexually dimorphic on the Y chromosome (sdY), is strongly but not perfectly associated with male phenotype in several other species from the family Salmonidae. Currently, the cause and implications of discordance for sdY-predicted genotypic sex and phenotypic sex in these species is unclear. Using an established multiplex PCR test for exons 2 and 3 of sdY, we demonstrated that sdY-predicted genotypic sex was discordant with histologically evidenced phenotypic sex in 4% of 176 Tasmanian Atlantic salmon. All discordant individuals were phenotypic females presenting a male genotype. Using real-time qPCR assays that we developed and validated for exons 2, 3 and 4 of sdY, all genotype-phenotype discordant females were confirmed to possess sdY, albeit at a reduced number of copies when compared to phenotypic males. The real-time qPCR assays also demonstrated reduced levels of sdY in 30% of phenotypic females that the established multiplex PCR-based test indicated to be devoid of sdY. These findings suggest sdY may be reduced in copy number or mosaicked in the genomic DNA of sdY-positive phenotypic female Atlantic salmon and highlight the importance of understanding the effects of reduced sdY copies on the development of phenotypic sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan S Brown
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University Warrnambool Campus, Warrnambool, Victoria, 3280, Australia
| | - Brad S Evans
- Breeding & Research, Tassal Operations, Hobart, Tasmania, 7000, Australia
| | - Luis O B Afonso
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University Warrnambool Campus, Warrnambool, Victoria, 3280, Australia.
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Glover KA, Harvey AC, Hansen TJ, Fjelldal PG, Besnier FN, Bos JB, Ayllon F, Taggart JB, Solberg MF. Chromosome aberrations in pressure-induced triploid Atlantic salmon. BMC Genet 2020; 21:59. [PMID: 32505176 PMCID: PMC7276064 DOI: 10.1186/s12863-020-00864-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Triploid organisms have three sets of chromosomes. In Atlantic salmon, hydrostatic pressure treatment of newly fertilized eggs has been extensively used to produce triploids which are functionally sterile due to their unpaired chromosomes. These fish often perform poorly on commercial farms, sometimes without explanation. Inheritance patterns in individuals subjected to pressure treatment have not been investigated in Atlantic salmon thus far. However, work on other species suggests that this treatment can result in aberrant inheritance. We therefore studied this in Atlantic salmon by genotyping 16 polymorphic microsatellites in eyed eggs and juveniles which had been subjected to pressure-induction of triploidy. Communally reared juveniles including fish subjected to pressure-induction of triploidy and their diploid siblings were included as a control. RESULTS No diploid offspring were detected in any of the eggs or juveniles which were subjected to hydrostatic pressure; therefore, the induction of triploidy was highly successful. Aberrant inheritance was nevertheless observed in 0.9% of the eggs and 0.9% of the juveniles that had been subjected to pressure treatment. In the communally reared fish, 0.3% of the fish subjected to pressure treatment displayed aberrant inheritance, while their diploid controls displayed 0% aberrant inheritance. Inheritance errors included two eyed eggs lacking maternal DNA across all microsatellites, and, examples in both eggs and juveniles of either the maternal or paternal allele lacking in one of the microsatellites. All individuals displaying chromosome aberrations were otherwise triploid. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to document aberrant inheritance in Atlantic salmon that have been subjected to pressure-induction of triploidy. Our experiments unequivocally demonstrate that even when induction of triploidy is highly successful, this treatment can cause chromosome aberrations in this species. Based upon our novel data, and earlier studies in other organisms, we hypothesize that in batches of Atlantic salmon where low to modest triploid induction rates have been reported, aberrant inheritance is likely to be higher than the rates observed here. Therefore, we tentatively suggest that this could contribute to the unexplained poor performance of triploid salmon that is occasionally reported in commercial aquaculture. These hypotheses require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Glover
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - A C Harvey
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway.
| | - T J Hansen
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - F N Besnier
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | - J B Bos
- ZEBCARE, Nederweert, The Netherlands
| | - F Ayllon
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - M F Solberg
- Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
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