1
|
Könönen E. Polymicrobial infections with specific Actinomyces and related organisms, using the current taxonomy. J Oral Microbiol 2024; 16:2354148. [PMID: 38766462 PMCID: PMC11100438 DOI: 10.1080/20002297.2024.2354148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Actinomyces organisms reside on mucosal surfaces of the oropharynx and the genitourinary tract. Polymicrobial infections with Actinomyces organisms are increasingly being reported in the literature. Since these infections differ from classical actinomycosis, lacking of specific clinical and imaging findings, slow-growing Actinomyces organisms can be regarded as contaminants or insignificant findings. In addition, only limited knowledge is available about novel Actinomyces species and their clinical relevance. The recent reclassifications have resulted in the transfer of several Actinomyces species to novel genera Bowdeniella, Gleimia, Pauljensenia, Schaalia, or Winkia. The spectrum of diseases associated with specific members of Actinomyces and these related genera varies. In human infections, the most common species are Actinomyces israelii, Schaalia meyeri, and Schaalia odontolytica, which are typical inhabitants of the mouth, and Gleimia europaea, Schaalia turicensis, and Winkia neuii. In this narrative review, the purpose was to gather information on the emerging role of specific organisms within the Actinomyces and related genera in polymicrobial infections. These include Actinomyces graevenitzii in pulmonary infections, S. meyeri in brain abscesses and infections in the lower respiratory tract, S. turicensis in skin-related infections, G. europaea in necrotizing fasciitis and skin abscesses, and W. neuii in infected tissues around prostheses and devices. Increased understanding of the role of Actinomyces and related species in polymicrobial infections could provide improved outcomes for patient care. Key messages Due to the reclassification of the genus, many former Actinomyces species belong to novel genera Bowdeniella, Gleimia, Pauljensenia, Schaalia, or Winkia.Some of the species play emerging roles in specific infection types in humans.Increasing awareness of their clinical relevance as an established or a putative pathogen in polymicrobial infections brings about improved outcomes for patient care.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eija Könönen
- Institute of Dentistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu Q, Xue L, Wu K, Fan G, Bai X, Yang X, Cao L, Sun H, Song W, Pan Y, Chen S, Xiong Y, Chen H. Nanchangia anserum gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from feces of greater white-fronted geese ( Anser albifrons). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2021; 71. [PMID: 34431769 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.004978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Two rod-shaped and Gram-stain-positive bacteria (strains C64T and C62) were isolated in 2020 from faeces of greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) from Poyang Lake, PR China. Their optimal growth conditions were at 37 °C, pH 7.0 and with 0.5 % (w/v) NaCl. The two isolates showed a highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity to Bowdeniella nasicola DSM 19116T (92.1 %). Phylogenetic/phylogenomic analyses indicated that strains C64T and C62 clustered independently in the vicinity of the genera Varibaculum, Winkia and Mobiluncus within the family Actinomycetaceae, but could not be classified clearly as members of any of these known genera. The average amino acid identity values between our isolates and available genomes of members of the family Actinomycetaceae were around the genus threshold value (45-65 %). The major cellular fatty acids of the strains were C18 : 1ω9c and C16 : 0. The predominant polar lipids were phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine, diacylglycerol, triacylglycerol and cardiolipin. The amino acid composition of peptidoglycan contained alanine, glutamic acid and glycine. The major respiratory menaquinones were MK-8(H4) and MK-9(H4). The whole cell sugars included galactose, arabinose and glucose. On the basis of the results of the 16S rRNA gene sequences comparison, whole-genome phylogenomic analysis, phenotypic and chemotaxonomic characteristics, we propose that strains C64T and C62 represent a novel species belonging to a novel genus within the family Actinomycetaceae, for which the name Nanchangia anserum gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is Nanchangia anserum C64T (=CGMCC 1.18410T=GDMCC 1.1969T=KCTC 49511T=KACC 22143T).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Liu
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
- The Collaboration Unit for Field Epidemiology of State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal-origin and Vector-borne Diseases, Nanchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang 330038, PR China
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, PR China
| | - Lin Xue
- The Collaboration Unit for Field Epidemiology of State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal-origin and Vector-borne Diseases, Nanchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang 330038, PR China
| | - Kui Wu
- The Collaboration Unit for Field Epidemiology of State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal-origin and Vector-borne Diseases, Nanchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang 330038, PR China
| | - Guoyin Fan
- The Collaboration Unit for Field Epidemiology of State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal-origin and Vector-borne Diseases, Nanchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang 330038, PR China
| | - Xiangning Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, PR China
| | - Xi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, PR China
| | - Lijiao Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, PR China
| | - Hui Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, PR China
| | - Wentao Song
- The Collaboration Unit for Field Epidemiology of State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal-origin and Vector-borne Diseases, Nanchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang 330038, PR China
| | - Yanyu Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, PR China
| | - Shengen Chen
- The Collaboration Unit for Field Epidemiology of State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal-origin and Vector-borne Diseases, Nanchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang 330038, PR China
| | - Yanwen Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, PR China
| | - Haiying Chen
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
- The Collaboration Unit for Field Epidemiology of State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal-origin and Vector-borne Diseases, Nanchang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanchang 330038, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Boorman S, Boone L, Weatherall K, Caldwell F. Actinomyces as a Cause of Osteomyelitis of the Nasofrontal Suture in a Gelding. J Equine Vet Sci 2020; 91:103148. [PMID: 32684273 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2020.103148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A 7-year-old American Quarter Horse gelding was referred to the JT Vaughan Large Animal Teaching Hospital at Auburn University, College of Veterinary Medicine, for an investigation of a recurrent swelling of the nasofrontal region. Computed tomography examination of the skull was most consistent with a sequestrum of the left nasofrontal suture with associated focal osteomyelitis and left conchofrontal sinusitis. Surgery to remove the sequestrum, debride the devitalized bone, and flush the left conchofrontal sinus was performed. A microbial culture was obtained at the time of surgery, which yielded a mixed heavy growth of an Actinomyces species. Quantitative PCR indicated a species with 93% resemblance to Actinomyces funkei. A treatment course of two weeks of oral chloramphenicol was prescribed. At three-month follow-up, the owner reported resolution of the swelling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Boorman
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
| | - Lindsey Boone
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
| | - Kathleen Weatherall
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
| | - Fred Caldwell
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Nouioui I, Carro L, García-López M, Meier-Kolthoff JP, Woyke T, Kyrpides NC, Pukall R, Klenk HP, Goodfellow M, Göker M. Genome-Based Taxonomic Classification of the Phylum Actinobacteria. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2007. [PMID: 30186281 PMCID: PMC6113628 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 394] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of phylogenetic taxonomic procedures led to improvements in the classification of bacteria assigned to the phylum Actinobacteria but even so there remains a need to further clarify relationships within a taxon that encompasses organisms of agricultural, biotechnological, clinical, and ecological importance. Classification of the morphologically diverse bacteria belonging to this large phylum based on a limited number of features has proved to be difficult, not least when taxonomic decisions rested heavily on interpretation of poorly resolved 16S rRNA gene trees. Here, draft genome sequences of a large collection of actinobacterial type strains were used to infer phylogenetic trees from genome-scale data using principles drawn from phylogenetic systematics. The majority of taxa were found to be monophyletic but several orders, families, and genera, as well as many species and a few subspecies were shown to be in need of revision leading to proposals for the recognition of 2 orders, 10 families, and 17 genera, as well as the transfer of over 100 species to other genera. In addition, emended descriptions are given for many species mainly involving the addition of data on genome size and DNA G+C content, the former can be considered to be a valuable taxonomic marker in actinobacterial systematics. Many of the incongruities detected when the results of the present study were compared with existing classifications had been recognized from 16S rRNA gene trees though whole-genome phylogenies proved to be much better resolved. The few significant incongruities found between 16S/23S rRNA and whole genome trees underline the pitfalls inherent in phylogenies based upon single gene sequences. Similarly good congruence was found between the discontinuous distribution of phenotypic properties and taxa delineated in the phylogenetic trees though diverse non-monophyletic taxa appeared to be based on the use of plesiomorphic character states as diagnostic features.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Imen Nouioui
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Lorena Carro
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Marina García-López
- Department of Microorganisms, Leibniz Institute DSMZ – German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jan P. Meier-Kolthoff
- Department of Microorganisms, Leibniz Institute DSMZ – German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Tanja Woyke
- Department of Energy, Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States
| | - Nikos C. Kyrpides
- Department of Energy, Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA, United States
| | - Rüdiger Pukall
- Department of Microorganisms, Leibniz Institute DSMZ – German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Hans-Peter Klenk
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Goodfellow
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Markus Göker
- Department of Microorganisms, Leibniz Institute DSMZ – German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lee MY, Kim MH, Lee WI, Kang SY, Jeon YL. A Case of Sepsis in a 92-Year-Old Korean Woman Caused byAerococcus urinaeand Identified by Sequencing the 16S Ribosomal RNA Gene. Lab Med 2016; 47:e15-7. [DOI: 10.1093/labmed/lmv030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
6
|
Abstract
Actinomyces israelii has long been recognized as a causative agent of actinomycosis. During the past 3 decades, a large number of novel Actinomyces species have been described. Their detection and identification in clinical microbiology laboratories and recognition as pathogens in clinical settings can be challenging. With the introduction of advanced molecular methods, knowledge about their clinical relevance is gradually increasing, and the spectrum of diseases associated with Actinomyces and Actinomyces-like organisms is widening accordingly; for example, Actinomyces meyeri, Actinomyces neuii, and Actinomyces turicensis as well as Actinotignum (formerly Actinobaculum) schaalii are emerging as important causes of specific infections at various body sites. In the present review, we have gathered this information to provide a comprehensive and microbiologically consistent overview of the significance of Actinomyces and some closely related taxa in human infections.
Collapse
|
7
|
Tena D, Losa C, Medina-Pascual MJ, Sáez-Nieto JA. Fournier's gangrene caused by Actinomyces funkei, Fusobacterium gonidiaformans and Clostridium hathewayi. Anaerobe 2014; 27:14-6. [PMID: 24631671 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2014.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We report the first case of Fournier's gangrene caused by three unusual anaerobic organisms: Actinomyces funkei, Fusobacterium gonidiaformans and Clostridium hathewayi. The infection occurred in a 73-year-old man without typical risk factors for the development of Fournier's gangrene. Clinical outcome was good after prolonged antibiotic treatment and extensive debridement of the perineum. The case suggests that A. funkei, F. gonidiaformans and C. hathewayi should be considered as potential pathogens of Fournier's gangrene. Human infections caused by these organisms are very rare but can be underestimated because correct identification is very difficult, especially in polymicrobial infections such as Fournier's gangrene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Tena
- Sección de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Spain.
| | - Cristina Losa
- Sección de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hinić V, Straub C, Schultheiss E, Kaempfer P, Frei R, Goldenberger D. Identification of a novel 16S rRNA gene variant of Actinomyces funkei from six patients with purulent infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19:E312-4. [PMID: 23521586 DOI: 10.1111/1469-0691.12201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the clinical significance and laboratory diagnosis of Actinomyces funkei. In this report we describe six clinical cases where A. funkei was isolated from purulent, polymicrobial infections. Conventional identification procedures were compared with molecular methods including matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry technique. Analysis of the full 16S rRNA gene sequence of the six investigated strains revealed differences from the A. funkei type strain. DNA-DNA hybridization showed that the clinical strains represent a novel 16S rRNA gene variant within the species of A. funkei.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V Hinić
- Division of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital Basel, Petersgraben 4, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Rasmussen M. Aerococci and aerococcal infections. J Infect 2012; 66:467-74. [PMID: 23277106 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2012.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/22/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Aerococcus is a genus that comprises seven species, of which Aerococcus urinae, and Aerococcus sanguinicola are emerging human pathogens. Aerococci are gram positive cocci that are easily misidentified as streptococci or staphylococci, and thus the incidence of aerococcal infections has been underestimated. With the introduction of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) clinical microbiologists now have access to a rapid and accurate method to identify aerococci. A. urinae and A. sanguinicola are isolated in a small proportion of urinary specimens in many laboratories and many patients with bacteriuria with aerococci have symptoms of urinary tract infection (UTI). A. urinae, and also A. sanguinicola, cause invasive infections including infective endocarditis (IE) with many reported fatalities. Especially older men with urinary tract abnormalities are at risk for bacteraemia with A. urinae but the prognosis of bacteraemia without IE is favourable. Penicillin is appropriate for treatment of invasive infections and in IE, addition of an aminoglycoside should be considered. Treatment of UTI with aerococci is complicated by uncertainty about the effect of trimethoprim-sulphametoxazole and fluoroquinolones on aerococci. This review will discuss identification of Aerococcus spp., antibiotic resistance, the clinical presentation and management of aerococcal infections as well as the virulence mechanisms of these bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Rasmussen
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B14, Tornavägen 10, 221 84 Lund, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Peltroche-Llacsahuanga H, Frye B, Haase G. Isolation of Streptococcus urinalis from a human blood culture. J Med Microbiol 2012; 61:740-742. [PMID: 22245791 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.039792-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus urinalis was isolated from a blood culture of a 60-year-old man with a history of urethral stricture. This species has been recently described as a new member of the pyogenic subgroup of streptococci that cause urinary tract infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Björn Frye
- Department of Nephrology and Immunology, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Gerhard Haase
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Shelton-Dodge K, Vetter EA, Kohner PC, Nyre LM, Patel R. Clinical significance and antimicrobial susceptibilities of Aerococcus sanguinicola and Aerococcus urinae. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2011; 70:448-51. [PMID: 21767701 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2010.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2010] [Revised: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A retrospective chart review was performed on 92 patients from whom 118 isolates of Aerococcus sanguinicola (n = 52) or Aerococcus urinae (n = 66) were obtained from urine cultures between October 2007 and June 2008 to assess clinical presentation and antimicrobial susceptibilities. The mean patient age was 82 (range 24-101) years. The majority was female (76% and 87% for A. sanguinicola and A. urinae, respectively) and institutionalized (61% and 60%, respectively). The majority of male patients had underlying prostatic disease (55% and 63%, respectively). Thirty-one of 46 patients with A. sanguinicola and 45 of 57 patients with A. urinae isolated from the urine had a clinical diagnosis of urinary tract infection. One subject had A. sanguinicola isolated from blood cultures. A. sanguinicola and A. urinae had low ceftriaxone, penicillin, and vancomycin MICs. MICs to erythromycin and levofloxacin were ≥0.5 and >4 μg/mL in 41% and 78% of A. sanguinicola and 17% and 23% of A. urinae isolates, respectively. In conclusion, A. sanguinicola and A. urinae are not infrequent causes of urinary tract infection and most A. sanguinicola isolates have elevated MICs to levofloxacin.
Collapse
|
12
|
Rao JU, Rash BA, Nobre MF, da Costa MS, Rainey FA, Moe WM. Actinomyces naturae sp. nov., the first Actinomyces sp. isolated from a non-human or animal source. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2011; 101:155-68. [PMID: 21965039 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-011-9644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Three facultatively anaerobic, Gram-positive staining, rod-shaped, non-spore forming, flagellated bacterial strains, BL-75, BL-79(T) and BL-104, were isolated from chlorinated solvent-contaminated groundwater. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons showed them to represent a distinct lineage within the genus Actinomyces with sequence identities in the range of <88-95.4% with previously described Actinomyces species. The strains were oxidase and catalase negative. Nitrate was not reduced. Esculin was hydrolyzed. Growth occurred in the temperature range of 20-43°C (optimum 30-37°C) and pH range 4.5-9.0 (optimum pH 6.5). Substrates supporting growth included various mono-, di-, and tri-saccharides. The end products of glucose fermentation were acetate, lactate, succinate and formate. Fermentative growth was observed in the presence of near saturation concentrations of perchloroethene (PCE) and toluene and in the presence of 1,2-dichloroethane and 1,1,2-trichloroethane at concentrations up to at least 24.4 mM and 11.2 mM, respectively. The dominant cellular fatty acids when grown in peptone/yeast extract/glucose (PYG) medium were C(18:1) ω9c, C(16:0), and C(14:0). The peptidoglycan was found to contain the amino acids alanine, glutamic acid, lysine, and ornithine at approximate molar ratios of 1.7 Ala: 2.3 Glu: 1.3 Lys: 1.0 Orn. The cell wall sugars were found to include rhamnose and mannose. The polar lipids were found to include diphosphatidylglycerol (DPG), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), phospholipid (PL), phosphoglycolipids (PGL), and glycolipids (GL). The main respiratory quinone of strain BL-79(T) was MK-9(H(4)), with minor components MK-10(H(4)) and MK-8(H(4)). The DNA mol% G+C content of the type strain is 69.8%. On the basis of phylogenetic and phenotypic characteristics, these strains could be differentiated from previously described species of the genus Actinomyces. Strains BL-75, BL-79(T) and BL-104 are designated as a novel species, for which the name Actinomyces naturae sp. nov. is proposed. This is the first Actinomyces species isolated from an environmental rather than human or animal sources. The type strain of Actinomyces naturae is BL-79(T) (= CCUG 56698(T) = NRRL B-24670(T)).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti U Rao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kass M, Toye B, Veinot JP. Fatal infective endocarditis due to Aerococcus urinae--case report and review of literature. Cardiovasc Pathol 2008; 17:410-2. [PMID: 18692408 DOI: 10.1016/j.carpath.2008.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2008] [Revised: 05/27/2008] [Accepted: 06/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Aerococcus-related infective endocarditis is a rare form of endocarditis with a high mortality. Most cases have associated genitourinary system pathology. Aerococcus urinae is a Gram-positive coccus that is arranged in clusters resembling Staphylococcus, but its growth characteristics and colonial morphology are closer to that of an alpha-hemolytic Streptococcus. This organism may initially be dismissed as a contaminant in clinical cultures from nonsterile sites. We report a representative case and review the literature concerning this unusual case of infective endocarditis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malek Kass
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa Heart Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Hall V. Actinomyces--gathering evidence of human colonization and infection. Anaerobe 2007; 14:1-7. [PMID: 18222714 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2007.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2007] [Accepted: 12/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The roles of the 'classical'Actinomyces spp. as colonizers of oral cavities of man and animals, in development of intra-oral infections and as agents of actinomycosis have been well documented. This mini-review focuses on perceptions of human colonization and infection that have emerged in the past decade, largely as a result of advances in classification, identification and direct detection from clinical material. Arguably, of the greatest importance is the recognition of actinomycosis as a major factor and indicator of poor prognosis in both infected osteoradionecrosis and bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaws. Among recently described species, Actinomyces graevenitzii has been isolated almost exclusively from oral and respiratory sites and may be a causative agent of actinomycosis. Conversely, several other Actinomyces spp. are isolated commonly from superficial soft tissue infections. Members of the genus Actinobaculum, which is closely related to Actinomyces, are strongly associated with urosepsis. Isolation and identification of Actinomyces and related genera by conventional methods remain difficult. Diagnosis is commonly belated and based solely upon histological findings. Development of direct detection methods may aid patient management and further elucidate clinical associations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Val Hall
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, NPHS Microbiology Cardiff, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
An D, Cai S, Dong X. Actinomyces ruminicola sp. nov., isolated from cattle rumen. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2006; 56:2043-2048. [PMID: 16957097 DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.64059-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Two obligate anaerobic bacterial strains, B71Tand D471, were isolated from cattle rumen. The novel strains were Gram-positive and rod-shaped. The strains hydrolysed xylan and starch, fermented some mono-, di- and oligosaccharides and produced formic, acetic and lactic acids as end products from glucose. Growth of the isolates was observed at 20–55 °C and pH 6.5–9.0. The DNA G+C contents of strains B71Tand D471 were 68.06 and 68.26 mol%, respectively. Although the two novel strains met the genus description forActinomyces, some phenotypic characteristics, such as optimum growth temperature, requirement for O2and the end products of fermentation, distinguished them from previously described members of the genus. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences demonstrated that the novel strains belonged to the genusActinomyces(88.3–93.6 % sequence similarity) and formed a distinct line within the clade containingActinomyces bovis. On the basis of these results, a novel species,Actinomyces ruminicolasp. nov., is proposed. The type strain is B71T(=JCM 13352T=CGMCC 1.5030T).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dengdi An
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing 100080, PR China
| | - Shichun Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing 100080, PR China
| | - Xiuzhu Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing 100080, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Finegold SM. Changes in taxonomy, anaerobes associated with humans, 2001-2004. Anaerobe 2006; 10:309-12. [PMID: 16701532 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2004.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2004] [Accepted: 09/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sydney M Finegold
- Infectious Diseases Section (111 F), VA Medical Center West Los Angeles, 11301 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90073, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Sierra-Hoffman M, Watkins K, Jinadatha C, Fader R, Carpenter JL. Clinical significance of Aerococcus urinae: a retrospective review. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2005; 53:289-92. [PMID: 16269223 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2005.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2005] [Accepted: 06/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A retrospective chart review was performed on 54 patients with positive urine cultures during a 1-year period to assess the clinical significance of Aerococcus urinae. Based on predetermined criteria, patients were classified into 2 groups: those with urinary tract infections (UTIs) and those who were considered colonized. The majority of the patients were > or =65 years old and were female. Only 31% of patients with UTI and 45% of colonized patients had A. urinae isolated in pure cultures. Both groups had significant but similar underlying medical conditions, with urologic conditions being predominant. Significantly more patients in the UTI group had urinary catheters (P < .01). No direct complications or invasive disease was recognized in either group regardless of whether patients were treated with antibiotics. Apparently, A. urinae is a relatively avirulent organism when cultured from urine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Sierra-Hoffman
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Scott & White Hospital, Scott, Sherwood and Brindley Foundation, The Texas A&M University Health Science Center College of Medicine, Temple, TX 76508, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Sarkonen N, Könönen E, Eerola E, Könönen M, Jousimies-Somer H, Laine P. Characterization of Actinomyces species isolated from failed dental implant fixtures. Anaerobe 2005; 11:231-7. [PMID: 16701573 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2005.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2003] [Revised: 10/12/2004] [Accepted: 01/08/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In the oral cavity, Actinomyces form a fundamental component of the indigenous microflora, being among initial colonizers in polymicrobial biofilms. However, some differences may exist between different species in terms of their attachment not only to teeth but also to biomaterials. In this study we investigated the distribution of Actinomyces in 33 dental implant fixtures explanted from 17 patients. The identification was based on comprehensive biochemical testing and gas-liquid chromatography and when needed, 16S rRNA sequencing. Actinomyces was the most prevalent bacterial genus in these failed implants, colonizing 31/33 (94%) of the fixtures. Proportions of Actinomyces growth of the total bacterial growth in the Actinomyces-positive fixtures varied from 0.01% up to 75%. A. odontolyticus was the most common Actinomyces finding, present in 26/31 (84%) Actinomyces-positive fixtures. Actinomyces naeslundii and A. viscosus were both detected in 10/31 (32%) and A. israelii in 7/31 (23%) fixtures. Other Actinomyces species, including A. georgiae, A. gerencseriae and A. graevenitzii, were detected less frequently. Our results suggest that Actinomyces species are frequent colonizers on failed implant surfaces, where A. odontolyticus was the far most prominent Actinomyces species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nanna Sarkonen
- Anaerobe Reference Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, National Public Health Institute (KTL), Mannerheimintie 166, FIN-00300 Helsinki, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Hall V, Collins MD, Lawson PA, Falsen E, Duerden BI. Actinomyces dentalis sp. nov., from a human dental abscess. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2005; 55:427-431. [PMID: 15653913 DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.63376-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A previously undescribed filamentous, beaded, Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium was isolated from pus of a human dental abscess. Based on its cellular morphology and the results of biochemical testing the organism was tentatively identified as a member of the genus Actinomyces, but it did not correspond to any currently recognized species of this genus. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing studies showed the bacterium represents a distinct subline within the genus Actinomyces, clustering within a group of species that includes Actinomyces bovis, the type species of the genus. Sequence divergence values of >8 % with other recognized species within this phylogenetic group clearly demonstrated that the organism represents a hitherto unknown species. Based on biochemical and molecular phylogenetic evidence, it is proposed that the unidentified organism recovered from a dental abscess be classified as a novel species, Actinomyces dentalis sp. nov. The type strain is R18165T (=CCUG 48064T=CIP 108337T).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Val Hall
- Anaerobe Reference Laboratory, NPHS Microbiology Cardiff, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | | | - Paul A Lawson
- School of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Enevold Falsen
- Culture Collection, Department of Clinical Bacteriology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Brian I Duerden
- Anaerobe Reference Laboratory, NPHS Microbiology Cardiff, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Junius G, Bavegems V, Stalpaert M, Binst D, Schrauwen E. Mitral Valve Endocarditis in a Labrador Retriever Caused by anActinomycesSpecies Identified asActinomyces turicensis. J Vet Intern Med 2004. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2004.tb02639.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
|
21
|
Hall V, Collins MD, Hutson RA, Inganäs E, Falsen E, Duerden BI. Actinomyces oricola sp. nov., from a human dental abscess. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2003; 53:1515-1518. [PMID: 13130041 DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.02576-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A previously undescribed Actinomyces-like bacterium was isolated from a human dental abscess. Based on its cellular morphology and the results of biochemical testing the organism was tentatively identified as a member of the genus Actinomyces, but it did not correspond to any currently recognized species of this genus. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing studies showed the bacterium represents a hitherto unknown subline within the genus Actinomyces, clustering within a group of species, which includes Actinomyces bovis, the type species of the genus. Based on biochemical and molecular phylogenetic evidence, it is proposed that the unknown organism recovered from a dental abscess be classified as a new species, Actinomyces oricola sp. nov. The type strain of Actinomyces oricola is R5292(T) (=CCUG 46090(T)=CIP 107639(T)).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Val Hall
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, PHLS, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | | | - Roger A Hutson
- School of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Elisabeth Inganäs
- Culture Collection, Department of Clinical Bacteriology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Enevold Falsen
- Culture Collection, Department of Clinical Bacteriology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Brian I Duerden
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, PHLS, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Hall V, Collins MD, Lawson PA, Falsen E, Duerden BI. Actinomyces nasicola sp. nov., isolated from a human nose. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2003; 53:1445-1448. [PMID: 13130031 DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.02582-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A previously undescribed facultatively anaerobic, catalase-negative, Actinomyces-like bacterium was isolated from the nose of a human. On the basis of its cellular morphology and the results of biochemical testing, the micro-organism was tentatively identified as a member of the genus Actinomyces, but it did not correspond to any currently recognized species. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing studies showed the bacterium to be a hitherto unknown subline within the genus Actinomyces, displaying sequence divergence values of more than 6 % with respect to recognized species of the genus. On the basis of biochemical, molecular chemical and molecular phylogenetic evidence, it is proposed that the unknown organism, strain R2014(T) (=CCUG 46092(T)=CIP 107668(T)), be classified as the type strain of a novel species, Actinomyces nasicola sp. nov.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Val Hall
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, Public Health Laboratory Service, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Paul A Lawson
- School of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Enevold Falsen
- Culture Collection, Department of Clinical Bacteriology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Brian I Duerden
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, Public Health Laboratory Service, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Hall V, Collins MD, Hutson R, Inganäs E, Falsen E, Duerden BI. Actinomyces vaccimaxillae sp. nov., from the jaw of a cow. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2003; 53:603-606. [PMID: 12710633 DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.02439-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A previously undescribed Actinomyces-like bacterium was isolated from a lesion in the jaw of a cow. Based on its cellular morphology and the results of biochemical testing, the organism was tentatively identified as a member of the genus Actinomyces. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing studies showed that the bacterium represents a hitherto unknown species within the genus Actinomyces, and is related to a group of species that includes Actinomyces turicensis and its close relatives. It is proposed that the unknown organism be classified as Actinomyces vaccimaxillae sp. nov. (the type strain is CCUG 46091T =CIP 107423T).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Val Hall
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, PHLS, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Roger Hutson
- School of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Elisabeth Inganäs
- Culture Collection, Department of Clinical Bacteriology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Enevold Falsen
- Culture Collection, Department of Clinical Bacteriology, University of Göteborg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Brian I Duerden
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, PHLS, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Hall V, Collins MD, Lawson PA, Hutson RA, Falsen E, Inganas E, Duerden B. Characterization of some actinomyces-like isolates from human clinical sources: description of Varibaculum cambriensis gen nov, sp nov. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41:640-4. [PMID: 12574260 PMCID: PMC149689 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.41.2.640-644.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fifteen strains of an anaerobic, catalase-negative, gram-positive diphtheroid-shaped bacterium recovered from human sources were characterized by phenotypic and molecular chemical and molecular genetic methods. The unidentified bacterium showed some resemblance to Actinomyces species and related taxa, but biochemical testing, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of whole-cell proteins, and amplified 16S ribosomal DNA restriction analysis indicated the strains were distinct from all currently named Actinomyces species and related taxa. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequencing studies showed that the bacterium represents a hitherto-unknown phylogenetic line that is related to but distinct from Actinomyces, Actinobaculum, Arcanobacterium, and Mobiluncus: We propose, on the basis of phenotypic and phylogenetic evidence, that the unknown bacterium from human clinical specimens should be classified as a new genus and species, Varibaculum cambriensis gen. nov., sp. nov. The type strain of Varibaculum cambriensis sp. nov. is CCUG 44998(T) = CIP 107344(T).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Val Hall
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, Public Health Laboratory Service, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Westling K, Lidman C, Thalme A. Tricuspid valve endocarditis caused by a new species of actinomyces: Actinomyces funkei. SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2002; 34:206-7. [PMID: 12030396 DOI: 10.1080/00365540110077425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
We present a case of tricuspid valve endocarditis in a 40-y-old woman with a history of heroin abuse. Blood cultures yielded a Gram-positive rod, preliminarily identified as "Actinomyces turicensis-like", but subsequently formally described as Actinomyces funkei sp. nov. The patient was cured by prolonged treatment with 10 weeks of i.v. antibiotics followed by oral antibiotic treatment for 12 weeks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Westling
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Huddinge University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Hall V, Collins MD, Hutson R, Falsen E, Duerden BI. Actinomyces cardiffensis sp. nov. from human clinical sources. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40:3427-31. [PMID: 12202588 PMCID: PMC130680 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.40.9.3427-3431.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Eight strains of a previously undescribed catalase-negative Actinomyces-like bacterium were recovered from human clinical specimens. The morphological and biochemical characteristics of the isolates were consistent with their assignment to the genus Actinomyces, but they did not appear to correspond to any recognized species. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis showed the organisms represent a hitherto unknown species within the genus Actinomyces related to, albeit distinct from, a group of species which includes Actinomyces turicensis and close relatives. Based on biochemical and molecular genetic evidence, it is proposed that the unknown isolates from human clinical sources be classified as a new species, Actinomyces cardiffensis sp. nov. The type strain of Actinomyces cardiffensis is CCUG 44997(T).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Val Hall
- Anaerobe Reference Unit, PHLS, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Sarkonen N, Könönen E, Summanen P, Könönen M, Jousimies-Somer H. Phenotypic identification of Actinomyces and related species isolated from human sources. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39:3955-61. [PMID: 11682514 PMCID: PMC88471 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.39.11.3955-3961.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2001] [Accepted: 08/21/2001] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in chemotaxonomic and molecular biology-based identification methods have clarified the taxonomy of the genus Actinomyces and have led to the recognition of several new Actinomyces and related species. Actinomyces-like gram-positive rods have increasingly been isolated from various clinical specimens. Thus, an easily accessible scheme for reliable differentiation at the species level is needed in clinical and oral microbiology laboratories, where bacterial identification is mainly based on conventional biochemical methods. In the present study we designed a two-step protocol that consists of a flowchart that describes rapid, cost-efficient tests for preliminary identification of Actinomyces and closely related species and an updated more comprehensive scheme that also uses fermentation reactions for accurate differentiation of Actinomyces and closely related species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Sarkonen
- Anaerobe Reference Laboratory, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|