1
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Zhao Y, Xu K, Shu F, Zhang F. Neurotropic virus infection and neurodegenerative diseases: Potential roles of autophagy pathway. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14548. [PMID: 38082503 PMCID: PMC11163195 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) constitute a group of disorders characterized by the progressive deterioration of nervous system functionality. Currently, the precise etiological factors responsible for NDs remain incompletely elucidated, although it is probable that a combination of aging, genetic predisposition, and environmental stressors participate in this process. Accumulating evidence indicates that viral infections, especially neurotropic viruses, can contribute to the onset and progression of NDs. In this review, emerging evidence supporting the association between viral infection and NDs is summarized, and how the autophagy pathway mediated by viral infection can cause pathological aggregation of cellular proteins associated with various NDs is discussed. Furthermore, autophagy-related genes (ARGs) involved in Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) infection and NDs are analyzed, and whether these genes could link HSV-1 infection to NDs is discussed. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying NDs is critical for developing targeted therapeutic approaches that prevent the onset and slow the progression of NDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu‐jia Zhao
- Laboratory Animal CentreZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
| | - Kai‐fei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education and Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Guizhou ProvinceZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
| | - Fu‐xing Shu
- Bioresource Institute for Healthy UtilizationZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
| | - Feng Zhang
- Laboratory Animal CentreZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education and Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Guizhou ProvinceZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
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2
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De Francesco MA. Herpesviridae, Neurodegenerative Disorders and Autoimmune Diseases: What Is the Relationship between Them? Viruses 2024; 16:133. [PMID: 38257833 PMCID: PMC10818483 DOI: 10.3390/v16010133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease represent the most common forms of cognitive impairment. Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system responsible for severe disability. An aberrant immune response is the cause of myelin destruction that covers axons in the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease characterized by alteration of B cell activation, while Sjögren's syndrome is a heterogeneous autoimmune disease characterized by altered immune responses. The etiology of all these diseases is very complex, including an interrelationship between genetic factors, principally immune associated genes, and environmental factors such as infectious agents. However, neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases share proinflammatory signatures and a perturbation of adaptive immunity that might be influenced by herpesviruses. Therefore, they might play a critical role in the disease pathogenesis. The aim of this review was to summarize the principal findings that link herpesviruses to both neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases; moreover, briefly underlining the potential therapeutic approach of virus vaccination and antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Antonia De Francesco
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Institute of Microbiology, University of Brescia-ASST Spedali Civili, 25123 Brescia, Italy
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3
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Feng S, Liu Y, Zhou Y, Shu Z, Cheng Z, Brenner C, Feng P. Mechanistic insights into the role of herpes simplex virus 1 in Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1245904. [PMID: 37744399 PMCID: PMC10512732 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1245904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is an aging-associated neurodegenerative disorder, threatening millions of people worldwide. The onset and progression of AD can be accelerated by environmental risk factors, such as bacterial and viral infections. Human herpesviruses are ubiquitous infectious agents that underpin numerous inflammatory disorders including neurodegenerative diseases. Published studies concerning human herpesviruses in AD imply an active role HSV-1 in the pathogenesis of AD. This review will summarize the current understanding of HSV-1 infection in AD and highlight some barriers to advance this emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Feng
- Department of Diabetes and Cancer Metabolism, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Yongzhen Liu
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Yu Zhou
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Zhenfeng Shu
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Zhuxi Cheng
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- International Department, Beijing Bayi School, Beijing, China
| | - Charles Brenner
- Department of Diabetes and Cancer Metabolism, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Pinghui Feng
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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4
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Liu S, Su Y, Lu Z, Zou X, Xu L, Teng Y, Wang Z, Wang T. The SFTSV Nonstructural Proteins Induce Autophagy to Promote Viral Replication via Interaction with Vimentin. J Virol 2023; 97:e0030223. [PMID: 37039677 PMCID: PMC10134822 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00302-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) is a newly identified phlebovirus associated with severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. Studies have shown that SFTSV nucleoprotein (N) induces BECN1-dependent autophagy to promote viral assembly and release. However, the function of other SFTSV proteins in regulating autophagy has not been reported. In this study, we identify SFTSV NSs, a nonstructural protein that forms viroplasm-like structures in the cytoplasm of infected cells as the virus component mediating SFTSV-induced autophagy. We found that SFTSV NSs-induced autophagy was inclusion body independent, and most phenuivirus NSs had autophagy-inducing effects. Unlike N protein-induced autophagy, SFTSV NSs was key in regulating autophagy by interacting with the host's vimentin in an inclusion body-independent manner. NSs interacted with vimentin and induced vimentin degradation through the K48-linked ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. This negatively regulating Beclin1-vimentin complex formed and promoted autophagy. Furthermore, we identified the NSs-binding domain of vimentin and found that overexpression of wild-type vimentin antagonized the induced effect of NSs on autophagy and inhibited viral replication, suggesting that vimentin is a potential antiviral target. The present study shows a novel mechanism through which SFTSV nonstructural protein activates autophagy, which provides new insights into the role of NSs in SFTSV infection and pathogenesis. IMPORTANCE Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) is a newly emerging tick-borne pathogen that causes multifunctional organ failure and even death in humans. As a housekeeping mechanism for cells to maintain steady state, autophagy plays a dual role in viral infection and the host's immune response. However, the relationship between SFTSV infection and autophagy has not been described in detail yet. Here, we demonstrated that SFTSV infection induced complete autophagic flux and facilitated viral proliferation. We also identified a key mechanism underlying NSs-induced autophagy, in which NSs interacted with vimentin to inhibit the formation of the Beclin1-vimentin complex and induced vimentin degradation through K48-linked ubiquitination modification. These findings may help us understand the new functions and mechanisms of NSs and may aid in the identification of new antiviral targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihua Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yazhi Su
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhuozhuang Lu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaohui Zou
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC, Beijing, China
| | - Leling Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yue Teng
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiyun Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Tao Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Institute of Tianjin Key Laboratory of Function and Application of Biological Macromolecular Structures, Tianjin, China
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5
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van Olst L, Coenen L, Nieuwland JM, Rodriguez-Mogeda C, de Wit NM, Kamermans A, Middeldorp J, de Vries HE. Crossing borders in Alzheimer's disease: A T cell's perspective. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 188:114398. [PMID: 35780907 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia affecting millions of people worldwide. While different immunotherapies are imminent, currently only disease-modifying medications are available and a cure is lacking. Over the past decade, immunological interfaces of the central nervous system (CNS) and their role in neurodegenerative diseases received increasing attention. Specifically, emerging evidence shows that subsets of circulating CD8+ T cells cross the brain barriers and associate with AD pathology. To gain more insight into how the adaptive immune system is involved in disease pathogenesis, we here provide a comprehensive overview of the contribution of T cells to AD pathology, incorporating changes at the brain barriers. In addition, we review studies that provide translation of these findings by targeting T cells to combat AD pathology and cognitive decline. Importantly, these data show that immunological changes in AD are not confined to the CNS and that AD-associated systemic immune changes appear to affect brain homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L van Olst
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - L Coenen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neurobiology and Aging, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - J M Nieuwland
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neurobiology and Aging, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - C Rodriguez-Mogeda
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - N M de Wit
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A Kamermans
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Middeldorp
- Department of Neurobiology and Aging, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - H E de Vries
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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6
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Romanescu C, Schreiner TG, Mukovozov I. The Role of Human Herpesvirus 6 Infection in Alzheimer’s Disease Pathogenicity—A Theoretical Mosaic. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11113061. [PMID: 35683449 PMCID: PMC9181317 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11113061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disorder generally affecting older adults, is the most common form of dementia worldwide. The disease is marked by severe cognitive and psychiatric decline and has dramatic personal and social consequences. Considerable time and resources are dedicated to the pursuit of a better understanding of disease mechanisms; however, the ultimate goal of obtaining a viable treatment option remains elusive. Neurodegenerative disease as an outcome of gene–environment interaction is a notion widely accepted today; a clear understanding of how external factors are involved in disease pathogenesis is missing, however. In the case of AD, significant effort has been invested in the study of viral pathogens and their role in disease mechanisms. The current scoping review focuses on the purported role HHV-6 plays in AD pathogenesis. First, early studies demonstrating evidence of HHV-6 cantonment in either post-mortem AD brain specimens or in peripheral blood samples of living AD patients are reviewed. Next, selected examples of possible mechanisms whereby viral infection can directly or indirectly contribute to AD pathogenesis are presented, such as autophagy dysregulation, the interaction between miR155 and HHV-6, and amyloid-beta as an antimicrobial peptide. Finally, closely related topics such as HHV-6 penetration in the CNS, HHV-6 involvement in neuroinflammation, and a brief discussion on HHV-6 epigenetics are examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantin Romanescu
- Clinical Section IV, “St. Parascheva” Infectious Disease Hospital, 700116 Iași, Romania
- Correspondence: (C.R.); (T.G.S.)
| | - Thomas Gabriel Schreiner
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Gr. T. Popa”, 700115 Iasi, Romania
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Carol Davila”, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Electrical Measurements and Materials, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, 21–23 Professor Dimitrie Mangeron Blvd.,700050 Iasi, Romania
- Correspondence: (C.R.); (T.G.S.)
| | - Ilya Mukovozov
- Department of Dermatology and Skin Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada;
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7
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Romeo MA, Montani MSG, Benedetti R, Arena A, Gaeta A, Cirone M. The dysregulation of autophagy and ER stress induced by HHV-6A infection activates pro-inflammatory pathways and promotes the release of inflammatory cytokines and cathepsin S by CNS cells. Virus Res 2022; 313:198726. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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8
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New Insights into Curcumin- and Resveratrol-Mediated Anti-Cancer Effects. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14111068. [PMID: 34832850 PMCID: PMC8622305 DOI: 10.3390/ph14111068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Curcumin and resveratrol are bioactive natural compounds displaying anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-cancer properties. In this study, we compared the cytotoxic effects of these molecules and the molecular mechanisms involved against Her-2/neu-positive breast and salivary cancer cell lines. We found that both curcumin and resveratrol were efficient in reducing cancer cell survival and that they differently affected autophagy, ROS and activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Moreover, we found that resveratrol and curcumin in combination exerted a stronger cytotoxic effect in correlation with the induction of a stronger ER stress and the upregulation of pro-death UPR molecule CHOP. This effect also correlated with the induction of pro-survival autophagy by curcumin and its inhibition by resveratrol. In conclusion, this study unveils new molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-cancer effects of resveratrol, curcumin and their combination, which can help to design new therapeutic strategies based on the use of these polyphenols.
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9
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Abstract
Viruses are intracellular parasites that subvert the functions of their host cells to accomplish their infection cycle. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-residing chaperone proteins are central for the achievement of different steps of the viral cycle, from entry and replication to assembly and exit. The most abundant ER chaperones are GRP78 (78-kDa glucose-regulated protein), GRP94 (94-kDa glucose-regulated protein), the carbohydrate or lectin-like chaperones calnexin (CNX) and calreticulin (CRT), the protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs), and the DNAJ chaperones. This review will focus on the pleiotropic roles of ER chaperones during viral infection. We will cover their essential role in the folding and quality control of viral proteins, notably viral glycoproteins which play a major role in host cell infection. We will also describe how viruses co-opt ER chaperones at various steps of their infectious cycle but also in order to evade immune responses and avoid apoptosis. Finally, we will discuss the different molecules targeting these chaperones and the perspectives in the development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs.
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10
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Duggan MR, Torkzaban B, Ahooyi TM, Khalili K. Potential Role for Herpesviruses in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 78:855-869. [PMID: 33074235 DOI: 10.3233/jad-200814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Across the fields of virology and neuroscience, the role of neurotropic viruses in Alzheimer's disease (AD) has received renewed enthusiasm, with a particular focus on human herpesviruses (HHVs). Recent genomic analyses of brain tissue collections and investigations of the antimicrobial responses of amyloid-β do not exclude a role of HHVs in contributing to or accelerating AD pathogenesis. Due to continued expansion in our aging cohort and the lack of effective treatments for AD, this composition examines a potential neuroviral theory of AD in light of these recent data. Consideration reveals a possible viral "Hit-and-Run" scenario of AD, as well as neurobiological mechanisms (i.e., neuroinflammation, protein quality control, oxidative stress) that may increase risk for AD following neurotropic infection. Although limitations exist, this theoretical framework reveals several novel therapeutic targets that may prove efficacious in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Duggan
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neurovirology, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Bahareh Torkzaban
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neurovirology, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Taha Mohseni Ahooyi
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neurovirology, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kamel Khalili
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neurovirology, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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11
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Abstract
Background. New antiviral textiles for the protection and prevention of life-threatening viral diseases are needed. Graphene oxide derivatives are versatile substances that can be combined with fabrics by different green electrochemistry methods. Methods In this study, graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets were combined with textile samples to study GO antiviral potential. GO synthesized in the Chemistry laboratories at the University of Rome Tor Vergata (Italy) and characterized with TEM/EDX, XRD, TGA, Raman spectroscopy, and FTIR, was applied at three different concentrations to linen textiles with the hot-dip and dry method to obtain filters. The GO-treated textiles were tested to prevent infection of a human glioblastoma cell line (U373) with human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A). Green electrochemical exfoliation of graphite into the oxidized graphene nanosheets provides a final GO-based product suitable for a virus interaction, mainly depending on the double layer of nanosheets, their corresponding nanometric sizes, and Z-potential value. Results Since GO-treated filters were able to prevent infection of cells in a dose-dependent fashion, our results suggest that GO may exert antiviral properties that can be exploited for medical devices and general use fabrics.
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12
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Evasion of the Host Immune Response by Betaherpesviruses. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147503. [PMID: 34299120 PMCID: PMC8306455 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human immune system boasts a diverse array of strategies for recognizing and eradicating invading pathogens. Human betaherpesviruses, a highly prevalent subfamily of viruses, include human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), human herpesvirus (HHV) 6A, HHV-6B, and HHV-7. These viruses have evolved numerous mechanisms for evading the host response. In this review, we will highlight the complex interplay between betaherpesviruses and the human immune response, focusing on protein function. We will explore methods by which the immune system first responds to betaherpesvirus infection as well as mechanisms by which viruses subvert normal cellular functions to evade the immune system and facilitate viral latency, persistence, and reactivation. Lastly, we will briefly discuss recent advances in vaccine technology targeting betaherpesviruses. This review aims to further elucidate the dynamic interactions between betaherpesviruses and the human immune system.
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13
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Tognarelli EI, Reyes A, Corrales N, Carreño LJ, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM, González PA. Modulation of Endosome Function, Vesicle Trafficking and Autophagy by Human Herpesviruses. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030542. [PMID: 33806291 PMCID: PMC7999576 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human herpesviruses are a ubiquitous family of viruses that infect individuals of all ages and are present at a high prevalence worldwide. Herpesviruses are responsible for a broad spectrum of diseases, ranging from skin and mucosal lesions to blindness and life-threatening encephalitis, and some of them, such as Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), are known to be oncogenic. Furthermore, recent studies suggest that some herpesviruses may be associated with developing neurodegenerative diseases. These viruses can establish lifelong infections in the host and remain in a latent state with periodic reactivations. To achieve infection and yield new infectious viral particles, these viruses require and interact with molecular host determinants for supporting their replication and spread. Important sets of cellular factors involved in the lifecycle of herpesviruses are those participating in intracellular membrane trafficking pathways, as well as autophagic-based organelle recycling processes. These cellular processes are required by these viruses for cell entry and exit steps. Here, we review and discuss recent findings related to how herpesviruses exploit vesicular trafficking and autophagy components by using both host and viral gene products to promote the import and export of infectious viral particles from and to the extracellular environment. Understanding how herpesviruses modulate autophagy, endolysosomal and secretory pathways, as well as other prominent trafficking vesicles within the cell, could enable the engineering of novel antiviral therapies to treat these viruses and counteract their negative health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo I. Tognarelli
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago 8330025, Chile; (E.I.T.); (A.R.); (N.C.); (L.J.C.); (S.M.B.); (A.M.K.)
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
| | - Antonia Reyes
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago 8330025, Chile; (E.I.T.); (A.R.); (N.C.); (L.J.C.); (S.M.B.); (A.M.K.)
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
| | - Nicolás Corrales
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago 8330025, Chile; (E.I.T.); (A.R.); (N.C.); (L.J.C.); (S.M.B.); (A.M.K.)
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
| | - Leandro J. Carreño
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago 8330025, Chile; (E.I.T.); (A.R.); (N.C.); (L.J.C.); (S.M.B.); (A.M.K.)
- Programa de Inmunología, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Susan M. Bueno
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago 8330025, Chile; (E.I.T.); (A.R.); (N.C.); (L.J.C.); (S.M.B.); (A.M.K.)
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
| | - Alexis M. Kalergis
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago 8330025, Chile; (E.I.T.); (A.R.); (N.C.); (L.J.C.); (S.M.B.); (A.M.K.)
- Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile
| | - Pablo A. González
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago 8330025, Chile; (E.I.T.); (A.R.); (N.C.); (L.J.C.); (S.M.B.); (A.M.K.)
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile
- Correspondence:
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14
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Michiels E, Rousseau F, Schymkowitz J. Mechanisms and therapeutic potential of interactions between human amyloids and viruses. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:2485-2501. [PMID: 33244624 PMCID: PMC7690653 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03711-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The aggregation of specific proteins and their amyloid deposition in affected tissue in disease has been studied for decades assuming a sole pathogenic role of amyloids. It is now clear that amyloids can also encode important cellular functions, one of which involves the interaction potential of amyloids with microbial pathogens, including viruses. Human expressed amyloids have been shown to act both as innate restriction molecules against viruses as well as promoting agents for viral infectivity. The underlying molecular driving forces of such amyloid-virus interactions are not completely understood. Starting from the well-described molecular mechanisms underlying amyloid formation, we here summarize three non-mutually exclusive hypotheses that have been proposed to drive amyloid-virus interactions. Viruses can indirectly drive amyloid depositions by affecting upstream molecular pathways or induce amyloid formation by a direct interaction with the viral surface or specific viral proteins. Finally, we highlight the potential of therapeutic interventions using the sequence specificity of amyloid interactions to drive viral interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiel Michiels
- VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium
- Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Frederic Rousseau
- VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.
- Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Joost Schymkowitz
- VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.
- Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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15
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The Autophagy-Initiating Protein Kinase ULK1 Phosphorylates Human Cytomegalovirus Tegument Protein pp28 and Regulates Efficient Virus Release. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.02346-20. [PMID: 33328309 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02346-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic process contributing to intrinsic cellular defense by degrading viral particles or proteins; however, several viruses hijack this pathway for their own benefit. The role of autophagy during human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication has not been definitely clarified yet. Utilizing small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based screening, we observed that depletion of many autophagy-related proteins resulted in reduced virus release, suggesting a requirement of autophagy-related factors for efficient HCMV replication. Additionally, we could show that the autophagy-initiating serine/threonine protein kinase ULK1 as well as other constituents of the ULK1 complex were upregulated at early times of infection and stayed upregulated throughout the replication cycle. We demonstrate that indirect interference with ULK1 through inhibition of the upstream regulator AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) impaired virus release. Furthermore, this result was verified by direct abrogation of ULK1 kinase activity utilizing the ULK1-specific kinase inhibitors SBI-0206965 and ULK-101. Analysis of viral protein expression in the presence of ULK-101 revealed a connection between the cellular kinase ULK1 and the viral tegument protein pp28 (pUL99), and we identified pp28 as a novel viral substrate of ULK1 by in vitro kinase assays. In the absence of ULK1 kinase activity, large pp28- and pp65-positive structures could be detected in the cytoplasm at late time points of infection. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that these structures represent large perinuclear protein accumulations presumably representing aggresomes. Our results indicate that HCMV manipulates ULK1 and further components of the autophagic machinery to ensure the efficient release of viral particles.IMPORTANCE The catabolic program of autophagy represents a powerful immune defense against viruses that is, however, counteracted by antagonizing viral factors. Understanding the exact interplay between autophagy and HCMV infection is of major importance since autophagy-related proteins emerged as promising targets for pharmacologic intervention. Our study provides evidence for a proviral role of several autophagy-related proteins suggesting that HCMV has developed strategies to usurp components of the autophagic machinery for its own benefit. In particular, we observed strong upregulation of the autophagy-initiating protein kinase ULK1 and further components of the ULK1 complex during HCMV replication. In addition, both siRNA-mediated depletion of ULK1 and interference with ULK1 protein kinase activity by two chemically different inhibitors resulted in impaired viral particle release. Thus, we propose that ULK1 kinase activity is required for efficient HCMV replication and thus represents a promising novel target for future antiviral drug development.
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Komaroff AL, Pellett PE, Jacobson S. Human Herpesviruses 6A and 6B in Brain Diseases: Association versus Causation. Clin Microbiol Rev 2020; 34:e00143-20. [PMID: 33177186 PMCID: PMC7667666 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00143-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A) and human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B), collectively termed HHV-6A/B, are neurotropic viruses that permanently infect most humans from an early age. Although most people infected with these viruses appear to suffer no ill effects, the viruses are a well-established cause of encephalitis in immunocompromised patients. In this review, we summarize the evidence that the viruses may also be one trigger for febrile seizures (including febrile status epilepticus) in immunocompetent infants and children, mesial temporal lobe epilepsy, multiple sclerosis (MS), and, possibly, Alzheimer's disease. We propose criteria for linking ubiquitous infectious agents capable of producing lifelong infection to any neurologic disease, and then we examine to what extent these criteria have been met for these viruses and these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L Komaroff
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Philip E Pellett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Steven Jacobson
- Virology/Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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17
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Allnutt MA, Johnson K, Bennett DA, Connor SM, Troncoso JC, Pletnikova O, Albert MS, Resnick SM, Scholz SW, De Jager PL, Jacobson S. Human Herpesvirus 6 Detection in Alzheimer's Disease Cases and Controls across Multiple Cohorts. Neuron 2020; 105:1027-1035.e2. [PMID: 31983538 PMCID: PMC7182308 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The interplay between viral infection and Alzheimer's disease (AD) has long been an area of interest, but proving causality has been elusive. Several recent studies have renewed the debate concerning the role of herpesviruses, and human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) in particular, in AD. We screened for HHV-6 detection across three independent AD brain repositories using (1) RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) datasets and (2) DNA samples extracted from AD and non-AD control brains. The RNA-seq data were screened for pathogens against taxon references from over 25,000 microbes, including 118 human viruses, whereas DNA samples were probed for PCR reactivity to HHV-6A and HHV-6B. HHV-6 demonstrated little specificity to AD brains over controls by either method, whereas other viruses, such as Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV), were detected at comparable levels. These direct methods of viral detection do not suggest an association between HHV-6 and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Alice Allnutt
- Viral Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Kory Johnson
- Bioinformatics Section, Information Technology & Bioinformatics Program, Division of Intramural Research (DIR), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke/National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - David A Bennett
- Alzheimer Disease Center, RUSH University, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Sarah M Connor
- Center for Translational & Computational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Juan C Troncoso
- Department of Pathology (Neuropathology), Johns Hopkins University Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Olga Pletnikova
- Department of Pathology (Neuropathology), Johns Hopkins University Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Marilyn S Albert
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Susan M Resnick
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Sonja W Scholz
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Philip L De Jager
- Center for Translational & Computational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Steven Jacobson
- Viral Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
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18
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Romeo MA, Gilardini Montani MS, Gaeta A, D'Orazi G, Faggioni A, Cirone M. HHV-6A infection dysregulates autophagy/UPR interplay increasing beta amyloid production and tau phosphorylation in astrocytoma cells as well as in primary neurons, possible molecular mechanisms linking viral infection to Alzheimer's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1866:165647. [PMID: 31866416 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2019.165647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
HHV-6A and HHV-6B are neurotropic viruses able to dysregulate autophagy and activate ER stress/UPR in several cell types. The appropriate functioning of these processes is required for cell homeostasis, particularly in post-mitotic cells such as neuronal cells. Interestingly, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are often accompanied by autophagy dysregulation and abnormal UPR activation. This study demonstrated for the first time that HHV-6A infection of astrocytoma cells and primary neurons reduces autophagy, increases Aβ production and activates ER stress/UPR promoting tau protein hyper-phosphorylation. Our results support previous studies suggesting that HHV-6A infection may play a role in AD and unveil the possible underlying molecular mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Anele Romeo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Saveria Gilardini Montani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Aurelia Gaeta
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriella D'Orazi
- Department of Research, Advanced Diagnostics, and Technological Innovation, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, Rome, Italy; Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University "G. D'Annunzio", 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Alberto Faggioni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Mara Cirone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, laboratory affiliated to Instituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy.
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19
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HHV-6B reduces autophagy and induces ER stress in primary monocytes impairing their survival and differentiation into dendritic cells. Virus Res 2019; 273:197757. [PMID: 31521763 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.197757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
HHV-6A and HHV-6B are ubiquitous human betaherpesviruses sharing more than 80% homology. HHV-6B is the most common cause of encephalitis in transplant patients and its primary infection may cause the exanthema subitum and febrile seizures in infants. HHV-6A and HHV-6B are able to infect several immune cell types such as T cells, monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs). In this study we found that HHV-6 B derived from patients affected by exanthema subitum impaired monocyte differentiation into DCs, as the infected cells acquired less CD1a DC marker and retained more CD14 monocyte marker. In agreement with the previous finding that HHV-6B dysregulated autophagy and induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in cells in which it replicated, here we found that these effects occurred also in differentiating monocytes and that ER stress relief, by using the chemical chaperone sodium 4-phenylbutirate (PBA), partially restored DC formation. This suggests that the induction of ER stress, likely exacerbated by autophagy inhibition, could contribute to the immune suppression induced by HHV-6B derived from exanthema subitem patients.
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20
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Qin Q, Li Y. Herpesviral infections and antimicrobial protection for Alzheimer's disease: Implications for prevention and treatment. J Med Virol 2019; 91:1368-1377. [PMID: 30997676 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that infections by herpesviruses might be closely linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Pathological hallmarks of AD brains include senile plaques induced by amyloid β peptide (Aβ) in the extracellular space and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) consisting of phosphorylated tau protein. The prevailing hypothesis for the mechanism of AD is amyloid cascade reaction. Recent studies revealed that infections by herpesviruses induce the similar pathological hallmarks of AD, including Aβ production, phosphorylation of tau (P-tau), oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, etc. Aβ peptide is regarded as one of the antimicrobial peptides, which inhibits HSV-1 replication. In the elderly, reactivation of herpesviruses might act as an initiator for amyloid cascade reaction in vulnerable individuals, triggering the neurofibrillary formation of phosphorylated tau and inducing oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, which can further contribute to the accumulation of Aβ and P-tau by impairing mitochondria and autophagosome. Epidemiological studies have shown AD susceptibility genes, such as APOE-ε4 allele, are highly linked to infections by herpesviruses. Interestingly, anti-herpesviral therapy significantly reduced the risk of AD in a large population study. Given that herpesviruses are arguably the most prevalent opportunistic pathogens and often reactivate in the elderly, it is reasonable to argue reactivation of herpesviruses might be major culprits for initiating AD in individuals carrying AD susceptibility genes. In this review, we summarize epidemiological and molecular evidence that support for a hypothesis of herpesviral infections and antimicrobial protection in the development of AD, and discuss the implications for future prevention and treatment of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingsong Qin
- Laboratory of Human Virology and Oncology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yun Li
- Sleep Medicine Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
- Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
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21
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Cirone M, Gilardini Montani MS, Granato M, Garufi A, Faggioni A, D'Orazi G. Autophagy manipulation as a strategy for efficient anticancer therapies: possible consequences. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2019; 38:262. [PMID: 31200739 PMCID: PMC6570888 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-019-1275-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic process whose activation may help cancer cells to adapt to cellular stress although, in some instances, it can induce cell death. Autophagy stimulation or inhibition has been considered an opportunity to treat cancer, especially in combination with anticancer therapies, although autophagy manipulation may be viewed as controversial. Thus, whether to induce or to inhibit autophagy may be the best option in the different cancer patients is still matter of debate. Her we will recapitulate the possible advantages or disadvantages of manipulating autophagy in cancer, not only with the aim to obtain cancer cell death and disable oncogenes, but also to evaluate its interplay with the immune response which is fundamental for the success of anticancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Cirone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy. .,Laboratory affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy.
| | - Maria Saveria Gilardini Montani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Marisa Granato
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessia Garufi
- Department of Medical Science, University 'G. D'Annunzio', 66013, Chieti, Italy.,Department of Research, IRCCS Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, 00144, Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Faggioni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,Laboratory affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriella D'Orazi
- Department of Medical Science, University 'G. D'Annunzio', 66013, Chieti, Italy. .,Department of Research, IRCCS Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, 00144, Rome, Italy.
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22
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Romeo MA, Faggioni A, Cirone M. Could autophagy dysregulation link neurotropic viruses to Alzheimer's disease? Neural Regen Res 2019; 14:1503-1506. [PMID: 31089040 PMCID: PMC6557098 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.253508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotropic herpesviruses have been associated with the onset and progression of Alzheimer’s disease, a common form of dementia that afflicts a large percentage of elderly individuals. Interestingly, among the neurotropic herpesviruses, herpes simplex virus-1, human herpesvirus-6A, and human herpesvirus-6B have been reported to infect several cell types present in the central nervous system and to dysregulate autophagy, a process required for homeostasis of cells, especially neurons. Indeed autophagosome accumulation, indicating an unbalance between autophagosome formation and autophagosome degradation, has been observed in neurons of Alzheimer’s disease patients and may play a role in the intracellular and extracellular accumulation of amyloid β and in the altered protein tau metabolism. Moreover, herpesvirus infection of central nervous system cells such as glia and microglia can increase the production of oxidant species through the alteration of mitochondrial dynamics and promote inflammation, another hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease. This evidence suggests that it is worth further investigating the role of neurotropic herpesviruses, particularly human herpesvirus-6A/B, in the etiopathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Anele Romeo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Faggioni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
| | - Mara Cirone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Laboratory Affiliated to Istituto Pasteur Italia-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Rome, Italy
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