1
|
Li P, Yin R, Cheng J, Lin J. Bacterial Biofilm Formation on Biomaterials and Approaches to Its Treatment and Prevention. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11680. [PMID: 37511440 PMCID: PMC10380251 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial biofilms can cause widespread infection. In addition to causing urinary tract infections and pulmonary infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, biofilms can help microorganisms adhere to the surfaces of various medical devices, causing biofilm-associated infections on the surfaces of biomaterials such as venous ducts, joint prostheses, mechanical heart valves, and catheters. Biofilms provide a protective barrier for bacteria and provide resistance to antimicrobial agents, which increases the morbidity and mortality of patients. This review summarizes biofilm formation processes and resistance mechanisms, as well as the main features of clinically persistent infections caused by biofilms. Considering the various infections caused by clinical medical devices, we introduce two main methods to prevent and treat biomaterial-related biofilm infection: antibacterial coatings and the surface modification of biomaterials. Antibacterial coatings depend on the covalent immobilization of antimicrobial agents on the coating surface and drug release to prevent and combat infection, while the surface modification of biomaterials affects the adhesion behavior of cells on the surfaces of implants and the subsequent biofilm formation process by altering the physical and chemical properties of the implant material surface. The advantages of each strategy in terms of their antibacterial effect, biocompatibility, limitations, and application prospects are analyzed, providing ideas and research directions for the development of novel biofilm infection strategies related to therapeutic materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jinshui Lin
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Chinese Jujube, College of Life Sciences, Yan’an University, Yan’an 716000, China; (P.L.); (R.Y.); (J.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rajaramon S, David H, Sajeevan A, Shanmugam K, Sriramulu H, Dandela R, Solomon AP. Multi-functional approach in the design of smart surfaces to mitigate bacterial infections: a review. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1139026. [PMID: 37287465 PMCID: PMC10242021 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1139026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Advancements in biomedical devices are ingenious and indispensable in health care to save millions of lives. However, microbial contamination paves the way for biofilm colonisation on medical devices leading to device-associated infections with high morbidity and mortality. The biofilms elude antibiotics facilitating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and the persistence of infections. This review explores nature-inspired concepts and multi-functional approaches for tuning in next-generation devices with antibacterial surfaces to mitigate resistant bacterial infections. Direct implementation of natural inspirations, like nanostructures on insect wings, shark skin, and lotus leaves, has proved promising in developing antibacterial, antiadhesive, and self-cleaning surfaces, including impressive SLIPS with broad-spectrum antibacterial properties. Effective antimicrobial touch surfaces, photocatalytic coatings on medical devices, and conventional self-polishing coatings are also reviewed to develop multi-functional antibacterial surfaces to mitigate healthcare-associated infections (HAIs).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shobana Rajaramon
- Quorum Sensing Laboratory, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Helma David
- Quorum Sensing Laboratory, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Anusree Sajeevan
- Quorum Sensing Laboratory, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Karthi Shanmugam
- Quorum Sensing Laboratory, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Hrithiha Sriramulu
- Quorum Sensing Laboratory, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| | - Rambabu Dandela
- Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Adline Princy Solomon
- Quorum Sensing Laboratory, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cyphert EL, Zhang N, Learn GD, Hernandez CJ, von Recum HA. Recent Advances in the Evaluation of Antimicrobial Materials for Resolution of Orthopedic Implant-Associated Infections In Vivo. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:3125-3160. [PMID: 34761915 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
While orthopedic implant-associated infections are rare, revision surgeries resulting from infections incur considerable healthcare costs and represent a substantial research area clinically, in academia, and in industry. In recent years, there have been numerous advances in the development of antimicrobial strategies for the prevention and treatment of orthopedic implant-associated infections which offer promise to improve the limitations of existing delivery systems through local and controlled release of antimicrobial agents. Prior to translation to in vivo orthopedic implant-associated infection models, the properties (e.g., degradation, antimicrobial activity, biocompatibility) of the antimicrobial materials can be evaluated in subcutaneous implant in vivo models. The antimicrobial materials are then incorporated into in vivo implant models to evaluate the efficacy of using the material to prevent or treat implant-associated infections. Recent technological advances such as 3D-printing, bacterial genomic sequencing, and real-time in vivo imaging of infection and inflammation have contributed to the development of preclinical implant-associated infection models that more effectively recapitulate the clinical presentation of infections and improve the evaluation of antimicrobial materials. This Review highlights the advantages and limitations of antimicrobial materials used in conjunction with orthopedic implants for the prevention and treatment of orthopedic implant-associated infections and discusses how these materials are evaluated in preclinical in vivo models. This analysis serves as a resource for biomaterial researchers in the selection of an appropriate orthopedic implant-associated infection preclinical model to evaluate novel antimicrobial materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erika L. Cyphert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Ningjing Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Greg D. Learn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Christopher J. Hernandez
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
- Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York 10021, United States
| | - Horst A. von Recum
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rao H, Choo S, Rajeswari Mahalingam SR, Adisuri DS, Madhavan P, Md. Akim A, Chong PP. Approaches for Mitigating Microbial Biofilm-Related Drug Resistance: A Focus on Micro- and Nanotechnologies. Molecules 2021; 26:1870. [PMID: 33810292 PMCID: PMC8036581 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilms play an essential role in chronic and healthcare-associated infections and are more resistant to antimicrobials compared to their planktonic counterparts due to their (1) physiological state, (2) cell density, (3) quorum sensing abilities, (4) presence of extracellular matrix, (5) upregulation of drug efflux pumps, (6) point mutation and overexpression of resistance genes, and (7) presence of persister cells. The genes involved and their implications in antimicrobial resistance are well defined for bacterial biofilms but are understudied in fungal biofilms. Potential therapeutics for biofilm mitigation that have been reported include (1) antimicrobial photodynamic therapy, (2) antimicrobial lock therapy, (3) antimicrobial peptides, (4) electrical methods, and (5) antimicrobial coatings. These approaches exhibit promising characteristics for addressing the impending crisis of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Recently, advances in the micro- and nanotechnology field have propelled the development of novel biomaterials and approaches to combat biofilms either independently, in combination or as antimicrobial delivery systems. In this review, we will summarize the general principles of clinically important microbial biofilm formation with a focus on fungal biofilms. We will delve into the details of some novel micro- and nanotechnology approaches that have been developed to combat biofilms and the possibility of utilizing them in a clinical setting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Harinash Rao
- School of Medicine, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia; (H.R.); (D.S.A.); (P.M.)
| | - Sulin Choo
- School of Biosciences, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia;
| | | | - Diajeng Sekar Adisuri
- School of Medicine, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia; (H.R.); (D.S.A.); (P.M.)
| | - Priya Madhavan
- School of Medicine, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia; (H.R.); (D.S.A.); (P.M.)
| | - Abdah Md. Akim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
| | - Pei Pei Chong
- School of Biosciences, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Selangor 47500, Malaysia;
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Smart Materials. Biomimetics (Basel) 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119683360.ch5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
|
6
|
Chaudhury A, Korompili G, Mitra M, Chronis N. A 3D-printed, touch-activated, sanitizer dispensing device for reducing healthcare-acquired infections. JOURNAL OF 3D PRINTING IN MEDICINE 2020; 4:91-104. [DOI: 10.2217/3dp-2020-0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/19/2023]
Abstract
Aim: We present a touch-activated, sanitizer dispensing (TSD) device, intended to be mounted on high-touch surfaces, that aims to reduce nosocomial infections. It disinfects the person’s hand touching its surface while being self-sterilizing. Materials & methods: The TSD device consists of an array of 3D-printed, passive, miniaturized, mechanical valves that dispense a small amount of liquid sanitizer when touched. Its mechanical performance and disinfecting efficiency were quantified using simulations and experimental tests. Results & conclusion: The TSD device has a disinfecting efficiency comparable to the standard hand sanitizing approach, reducing the microbiological load by approximately 30-times. It can be easily mounted on high-touch surfaces in a healthcare setting and it is expected to greatly reduce the spread of nosocomial infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amrita Ray Chaudhury
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Georgia Korompili
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Nanoscience, National Centre for Scientific Research Demokritos, Patriarchou Gregoriou & Neapoleos, Aghia Paraskevi, 15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Mainak Mitra
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Nikolaos Chronis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Institute of Nanotechnology & Nanoscience, National Centre for Scientific Research Demokritos, Patriarchou Gregoriou & Neapoleos, Aghia Paraskevi, 15341 Athens, Greece
- Department of Materials Science and Technology, University of Crete, Vassilika Voutes GR-70013 Heraklion, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Yang Y, Wang H, Zhou H, Hu Z, Shang W, Rao Y, Peng H, Zheng Y, Hu Q, Zhang R, Luo H, Rao X. Protective Effect of the Golden Staphyloxanthin Biosynthesis Pathway on Staphylococcus aureus under Cold Atmospheric Plasma Treatment. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:e01998-19. [PMID: 31704682 PMCID: PMC6974630 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01998-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus infection poses a serious threat to public health, and antibiotic resistance has complicated the clinical treatment and limited the solutions available to solve this problem. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) is a promising strategy for microorganism inactivation. However, the mechanisms of microbial inactivation or resistance remain unclear. In this study, we treated S. aureus strains with a self-assembled CAP device and found that CAP can kill S. aureus in an exposure time-dependent manner. In addition, the liquid environment can influence the survival rate of S. aureus post-CAP treatment. The S. aureus cells can be completely inactivated in normal saline and phosphate-buffered saline but not in tryptic soy broth culture medium. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed that the CAP-treated S. aureus cells maintained integrated morphological structures, similar to the wild-type strain. Importantly, the CAP-treated S. aureus cells exhibited a reduced pigment phenotype. Deletion of the staphyloxanthin biosynthetic genes crtM and crtN deprived the pigmentation ability of S. aureus Newman. Both the Newman-ΔcrtM and Newman-ΔcrtN mutants presented high sensitivity to CAP treatment, whereas Newman-ΔcrtO exhibited a survival rate comparable to wild-type Newman after CAP treatment. Our data demonstrated that the yellow pigment intermediates of the staphyloxanthin biosynthetic pathway are responsible for the protection of S. aureus from CAP inactivation. The key enzymes, such as CrtM and CrtN, of the golden staphyloxanthin biosynthetic pathway could be important targets for the design of novel sterilization strategies against S. aureus infections.IMPORTANCEStaphylococcus aureus is an important pathogen that can be widely distributed in the community and clinical settings. The emergence of S. aureus with multiple-antibiotic resistance has complicated staphylococcal infection control. The development of alternative strategies with powerful bactericidal effects is urgently needed. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) is a promising strategy for microorganism inactivation. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms of microbial inactivation or resistance are not completely illustrated. In this study, we validated the bactericidal effects of CAP on S. aureus, including antibiotic-resistant strains. We also found that the golden staphyloxanthin, as well as its yellow pigment intermediates, protected S. aureus against CAP, and blocking the staphyloxanthin synthesis pathway at the early steps could strengthen the sensitivity of S. aureus to CAP treatment. These data provide insights into the germicidal mechanism of CAP from the aspect of bacteria and suggest new targets against S. aureus infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Yang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Huyue Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Zhen Hu
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Weilong Shang
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Yifan Rao
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Huagang Peng
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Ying Zheng
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Qiwen Hu
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Rong Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Haiyun Luo
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiancai Rao
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Jang SJ, Doshi T, Nerayo J, Caprio A, Alaie S, Auge J, Min JK, Mosadegh B, Dunham S. Microneedle Patterning of 3D Nonplanar Surfaces on Implantable Medical Devices Using Soft Lithography. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10100705. [PMID: 31623246 PMCID: PMC6843263 DOI: 10.3390/mi10100705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Micropatterning is often used to engineer the surface properties of objects because it allows the enhancement or modification of specific functionalities without modification of the bulk material properties. Microneedle arrays have been explored in the past for drug delivery and enhancement of tissue anchoring; however, conventional methods are primarily limited to thick, planar substrates. Here, we demonstrate a method for the fabrication of microneedle arrays on thin flexible polyurethane substrates. These thin-film microneedle arrays can be used to fabricate balloons and other inflatable objects. In addition, these thin-filmed microneedles can be transferred, using thermal forming processes, to more complex 3D objects on which it would otherwise be difficult to directly pattern microneedles. This function is especially useful for medical devices, which require effective tissue anchorage but are a challenging target for micropatterning due to their 3D nonplanar shape, large size, and the complexity of the required micropatterns. Ultrathin flexible thermoplastic polyurethane microneedle arrays were fabricated from a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) mold. The technique was applied onto the nonplanar surface of rapidly prototyped soft robotic implantable polyurethane devices. We found that a microneedle-patterned surface can increase the anchorage of the device to a tissue by more than twofold. In summary, our soft lithographic patterning method can rapidly and inexpensively generate thin-film microneedle surfaces that can be used to produce balloons or enhance the properties of other 3D objects and devices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sun-Joo Jang
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Tejas Doshi
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Jerusalem Nerayo
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Alexandre Caprio
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Seyedhamidreza Alaie
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Jordyn Auge
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - James K Min
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Bobak Mosadegh
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Simon Dunham
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Nandakumar V, Huang C, Pulgar A, Balasubramanian V, Wu G, Chandar P, Moudgil BM. Particle assisted removal of microbes from surfaces. J Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 533:190-197. [PMID: 30165296 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2018.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Increased reliance on kill based approaches for disinfection raises concerns of antimicrobial resistance development and has significantly elevated the need for alternate approaches for skin and substrate disinfection. This study focuses on reducing harmful microbes from substrates primarily via removal and to a lesser extent by kill. HYPOTHESIS Functional micro-particles designed to adhere to microbes, with a force greater than the force of microbial adhesion to the substrate, would result in enhanced removal-based disinfection of substrates when subject to an external force. EXPERIMENTS Silica particles were functionalized with a cationic polymer to bind strongly with bacteria via Coulombic interactions. Disinfection efficacies of substrates with functional particles and control groups were evaluated under conditions relevant for handwashing. FINDINGS Functionalized silica micro-particles result in ∼4 log reduction of E. coli from an artificial skin substrate in 30 s as compared to a maximum of 1.5 log reduction with control particles. Bacterial viability assays indicate a mechanism of action driven by enhanced removal of bacteria with minimal kill. Particle number density, size and suspension velocity along with strong particle - bacteria interactions have been found to be the primary factors responsible for the enhanced bacterial removal from surfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vignesh Nandakumar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA; Center for Particulate and Surfactant Systems, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA
| | - Chenan Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA
| | - Andrea Pulgar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA
| | - Vasanthakumar Balasubramanian
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA; Center for Particulate and Surfactant Systems, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA
| | - Guohui Wu
- Unilever Research and Development, Trumbull, CT 06611, USA
| | - Prem Chandar
- Unilever Research and Development, Trumbull, CT 06611, USA
| | - Brij M Moudgil
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA; Center for Particulate and Surfactant Systems, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA.
| |
Collapse
|