H-NS suppresses pilE intragenic transcription and antigenic variation in Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Nucleoid-associated proteins shape chromatin structure and transcriptional regulation across the bacterial kingdom

Genome architecture has proven to be critical in determining gene regulation across almost all domains of life. While many of the key components and mechanisms of eukaryotic genome organization have been described, the interplay between bacterial DNA organization and gene regulation is only now being fully appreciated. An increasing pool of evidence has demonstrated that the bacterial chromosome can reasonably be thought of as chromatin, and that bacterial chromosomes contain transcriptionally silent and transcriptionally active regions analogous to heterochromatin and euchromatin, respectively. The roles played by histones in eukaryotic systems appear to be shared across a range of nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) in bacteria, which function to compact, structure, and regulate large portions of bacterial chromosomes. The broad range of extant NAPs, and the extent to which they differ from species to species, has raised additional challenges in identifying and characterizing their roles in all but a handful of model bacteria. Here we review the regulatory roles played by NAPs in several well-studied bacteria and use the resulting state of knowledge to provide a working definition for NAPs, based on their function, binding pattern, and expression levels. We present a screening procedure which can be applied to any species for which transcriptomic data are available. Finally, we note that NAPs tend to play two major regulatory roles - xenogeneic silencers and developmental regulators - and that many unrecognized potential NAPs exist in each bacterial species examined.

H-NS-like proteins in Pseudomonas aeruginosa coordinately silence intragenic transcription

The H-NS-like proteins MvaT and MvaU act coordinately as global repressors in Pseudomonas aeruginosa by binding to AT-rich regions of the chromosome. Although cells can tolerate loss of either protein, identifying their combined regulatory effects has been challenging because the loss of both proteins is lethal due to induction of prophage Pf4 and subsequent superinfection of the cell. In other bacteria, H-NS promotes the cellular fitness by inhibiting intragenic transcription from AT-rich target regions, preventing them from sequestering RNA polymerase; however, it is not known whether MvaT and MvaU function similarly. Here, we utilize a parental strain that cannot be infected by Pf4 phage to define the collective MvaT and MvaU regulon and demonstrate that the combined loss of both MvaT and MvaU leads to increased intragenic transcription from loci directly controlled by these proteins. We further show that the loss of MvaT and MvaU leads to a striking redistribution of RNA polymerase containing σ⁷⁰ to genomic regions vacated by these proteins. Our findings suggest that the ability of H-NS-like proteins to repress intragenic transcription is a universal function of these proteins and point to a second mechanism by which MvaT and MvaU may contribute to the growth of P. aeruginosa.

Loop structures in the 5' untranslated region and antisense RNA mediate pilE gene expression in Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Regulation of the Neisseria gonorrhoeae pilE gene is ill-defined. In this study, post-transcriptional effects on expression were assessed. In silico analysis predicts the formation of three putative stable stem-loop structures with favourable free energies within the 5' untranslated region of the pilE message. Using quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR analyses, we show that each loop structure forms, with introduced destabilizing stem-loop mutations diminishing loop stability. Utilizing a series of pilE translational fusions, deletion of either loop 1 or loop 2 caused a significant reduction of pilE mRNA resulting in reduced expression of the reporter gene. Consequently, the formation of the loops apparently protects the pilE transcript from degradation. Putative loop 3 contains the pilE ribosomal binding site. Consequently, its formation may influence translation. Analysis of a small RNA transcriptome revealed an antisense RNA being produced upstream of the pilE promoter that is predicted to hybridize across the 5' untranslated region loops. Insertional mutants were created where the antisense RNA is not transcribed. In these mutants, pilE transcript levels are greatly diminished, with any residual message apparently not being translated. Complementation of these insertion mutants in trans with the antisense RNA gene facilitates pilE translation yielding a pilus + phenotype. Overall, this study demonstrates a complex relationship between loop-dependent transcript protection and antisense RNA in modulating pilE expression levels.

Positive Selection Pressure Drives Variation on the Surface-Exposed Variable Proteins of the Pathogenic Neisseria

Pathogenic species of Neisseria utilize variable outer membrane proteins to facilitate infection and proliferation within the human host. However, the mechanisms behind the evolution of these variable alleles remain largely unknown due to analysis of previously limited datasets. In this study, we have expanded upon the previous analyses to substantially increase the number of analyzed sequences by including multiple diverse strains, from various geographic locations, to determine whether positive selective pressure is exerted on the evolution of these variable genes. Although Neisseria are naturally competent, this analysis indicates that only intrastrain horizontal gene transfer among the pathogenic Neisseria principally account for these genes exhibiting linkage equilibrium which drives the polymorphisms evidenced within these alleles. As the majority of polymorphisms occur across species, the divergence of these variable genes is dependent upon the species and is independent of geographical location, disease severity, or serogroup. Tests of neutrality were able to detect strong selection pressures acting upon both the opa and pil gene families, and were able to locate the majority of these sites within the exposed variable regions of the encoded proteins. Evidence of positive selection acting upon the hypervariable domains of Opa contradicts previous beliefs and provides evidence for selection of receptor binding. As the pathogenic Neisseria reside exclusively within the human host, the strong selection pressures acting upon both the opa and pil gene families provide support for host immune system pressure driving sequence polymorphisms within these variable genes.