Schwertmannite formation at cell junctions by a new filament-forming Fe(II)-oxidizing isolate affiliated with the novel genus Acidithrix

Bioenergetics of iron snow fueling life on Europa

The main sources of redox gradients supporting high-productivity life in the Europan and other icy ocean world oceans were proposed to be photolytically derived oxidants, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) from the icy shell, and reductants (Fe(II), S(-II), CH4, H2) from bottom waters reacting with a (ultra)mafic seafloor. Important roadblocks to maintaining life, however, are that the degree of ocean mixing to combine redox species is unknown, and ROS damage biomolecules. Here, we envisage a unique solution using an acid mine drainage (AMD)-filled pit lakes analog system for the Europan ocean, which previous models predicted to be acidic. We hypothesize that surface-generated ROS oxidize dissolved Fe(II) resulting in Fe(III) (hydr)oxide precipitates, that settle to the seafloor as "iron snow." The iron snow provides a respiratory substrate for anaerobic microorganisms ("breathing iron"), and limits harmful ROS exposure since they are now neutralized at the ice-water interface. Based on this scenario, we calculated Gibbs energies and maximal biomass productivities of various anaerobic metabolisms for a range of pH, temperatures, and H2 fluxes. Productivity by iron reducers was greater for most environmental conditions considered, whereas sulfate reducers and methanogens were more favored at high pH. Participation of Fe in the metabolic redox processes is largely neglected in most models of Europan biogeochemistry. Our model overcomes important conceptual roadblocks to life in icy ocean worlds and broadens the potential metabolic diversity, thus increasing total primary productivity, the diversity and volume of habitable environmental niches and, ultimately, the probability of biosignature detection.

The Magnetosome Protein, Mms6 from Magnetospirillum magneticum Strain AMB-1, Is a Lipid-Activated Ferric Reductase

Magnetosomes of magnetotactic bacteria consist of magnetic nanocrystals with defined morphologies enclosed in vesicles originated from cytoplasmic membrane invaginations. Although many proteins are involved in creating magnetosomes, a single magnetosome protein, Mms6 from Magnetospirillum magneticum strain AMB-1, can direct the crystallization of magnetite nanoparticles in vitro. The in vivo role of Mms6 in magnetosome formation is debated, and the observation that Mms6 binds Fe³⁺ more tightly than Fe²⁺ raises the question of how, in a magnetosome environment dominated by Fe³⁺, Mms6 promotes the crystallization of magnetite, which contains both Fe³⁺ and Fe²⁺. Here we show that Mms6 is a ferric reductase that reduces Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ using NADH and FAD as electron donor and cofactor, respectively. Reductase activity is elevated when Mms6 is integrated into either liposomes or bicelles. Analysis of Mms6 mutants suggests that the C-terminal domain binds iron and the N-terminal domain contains the catalytic site. Although Mms6 forms multimers that involve C-terminal and N-terminal domain interactions, a fusion protein with ubiquitin remains a monomer and displays reductase activity, which suggests that the catalytic site is fully in the monomer. However, the quaternary structure of Mms6 appears to alter the iron binding characteristics of the C-terminal domain. These results are consistent with a hypothesis that Mms6, a membrane protein, promotes the formation of magnetite in vivo by a mechanism that involves reducing iron.

Extracellular proteins of Desulfovibrio vulgaris as adsorbents and redox shuttles promote biomineralization of antimony

Biomineralization is the key process governing the biogeochemical cycling of multivalent metals in the environment. Although some sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are recently recognized to respire metal ions, the role of their extracellular proteins in the immobilization and redox transformation of antimony (Sb) remains elusive. Here, a model strain Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough (DvH) was used to study microbial extracellular proteins of functions and possible mechanisms in Sb(V) biomineralization. We found that the functional groups (N-H, CO, O-CO, NH₂-R and RCOH/RCNH₂) of extracellular proteins could adsorb and fix Sb(V) through electrostatic attraction and chelation. DvH could rapidly reduce Sb(V) adsorbed on the cell surface and form amorphous nanometer-sized stibnite and/or antimony trioxide, respectively with sulfur and oxygen. Proteomic analysis indicated that some extracellular proteins involved in electron transfer increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 1.8 mM Sb(V). The upregulated flavoproteins could serve as a redox shuttle to transfer electrons from c-type cytochrome networks to reduce Sb(V). Also, the upregulated extracellular proteins involved in sulfur reduction, amino acid transport and protein synthesis processes, and the downregulated flagellar proteins would contribute to a better adaption under 1.8 mM Sb(V). This study advances our understanding of how microbial extracellular proteins promote Sb biomineralization in DvH.

Forced Biomineralization: A Review

Biologically induced and controlled mineralization of metals promotes the development of protective structures to shield cells from thermal, chemical, and ultraviolet stresses. Metal biomineralization is widely considered to have been relevant for the survival of life in the environmental conditions of ancient terrestrial oceans. Similar behavior is seen among extremophilic biomineralizers today, which have evolved to inhabit a variety of industrial aqueous environments with elevated metal concentrations. As an example of extreme biomineralization, we introduce the category of "forced biomineralization", which we use to refer to the biologically mediated sequestration of dissolved metals and metalloids into minerals. We discuss forced mineralization as it is known to be carried out by a variety of organisms, including polyextremophiles in a range of psychrophilic, thermophilic, anaerobic, alkaliphilic, acidophilic, and halophilic conditions, as well as in environments with very high or toxic metal ion concentrations. While much additional work lies ahead to characterize the various pathways by which these biominerals form, forced biomineralization has been shown to provide insights for the progression of extreme biomimetics, allowing for promising new forays into creating the next generation of composites using organic-templating approaches under biologically extreme laboratory conditions relevant to a wide range of industrial conditions.

Draft Genome Sequences of Acidithrix sp. Strain C25 and Acidocella sp. Strain C78, Acidophiles Isolated from Iron-Rich Pelagic Aggregates (Iron Snow)

We report the draft genome sequences of two acidophiles, the Fe-oxidizing bacterium Acidithrix sp. strain C25 and the putative Fe-reducing Acidocella sp. strain C78. Both strains were isolated from iron-rich pelagic aggregates (iron snow) collected below the redoxcline at a 5-m depth in an acidic pit lake located in Germany (51°31′8.2″N, 13°41′34.7″E).

Insights into Autotrophic Activities and Carbon Flow in Iron-Rich Pelagic Aggregates (Iron Snow)

Pelagic aggregates function as biological carbon pumps for transporting fixed organic carbon to sediments. In iron-rich (ferruginous) lakes, photoferrotrophic and chemolithoautotrophic bacteria contribute to CO₂ fixation by oxidizing reduced iron, leading to the formation of iron-rich pelagic aggregates (iron snow). The significance of iron oxidizers in carbon fixation, their general role in iron snow functioning and the flow of carbon within iron snow is still unclear. Here, we combined a two-year metatranscriptome analysis of iron snow collected from an acidic lake with protein-based stable isotope probing to determine general metabolic activities and to trace ¹³CO₂ incorporation in iron snow over time under oxic and anoxic conditions. mRNA-derived metatranscriptome of iron snow identified four key players (Leptospirillum, Ferrovum, Acidithrix, Acidiphilium) with relative abundances (59.6-85.7%) encoding ecologically relevant pathways, including carbon fixation and polysaccharide biosynthesis. No transcriptional activity for carbon fixation from archaea or eukaryotes was detected. ¹³CO₂ incorporation studies identified active chemolithoautotroph Ferrovum under both conditions. Only 1.0-5.3% relative ¹³C abundances were found in heterotrophic Acidiphilium and Acidocella under oxic conditions. These data show that iron oxidizers play an important role in CO₂ fixation, but the majority of fixed C will be directly transported to the sediment without feeding heterotrophs in the water column in acidic ferruginous lakes.

Molecular Mechanisms Underpinning Aggregation in Acidiphilium sp. C61 Isolated from Iron-Rich Pelagic Aggregates

Iron-rich pelagic aggregates (iron snow) are hot spots for microbial interactions. Using iron snow isolates, we previously demonstrated that the iron-oxidizer Acidithrix sp. C25 triggers Acidiphilium sp. C61 aggregation by producing the infochemical 2-phenethylamine (PEA). Here, we showed slightly enhanced aggregate formation in the presence of PEA on different Acidiphilium spp. but not other iron-snow microorganisms, including Acidocella sp. C78 and Ferrovum sp. PN-J47. Next, we sequenced the Acidiphilium sp. C61 genome to reconstruct its metabolic potential. Pangenome analyses of Acidiphilium spp. genomes revealed the core genome contained 65 gene clusters associated with aggregation, including autoaggregation, motility, and biofilm formation. Screening the Acidiphilium sp. C61 genome revealed the presence of autotransporter, flagellar, and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) production genes. RNA-seq analyses of Acidiphilium sp. C61 incubations (+/− 10 µM PEA) indicated genes involved in energy production, respiration, and genetic processing were the most upregulated differentially expressed genes in the presence of PEA. Additionally, genes involved in flagellar basal body synthesis were highly upregulated, whereas the expression pattern of biofilm formation-related genes was inconclusive. Our data shows aggregation is a common trait among Acidiphilium spp. and PEA stimulates the central cellular metabolism, potentially advantageous in aggregates rapidly falling through the water column.

An integrated microbiological and electrochemical approach to determine distributions of Fe metabolism in acid mine drainage-induced "iron mound" sediments

Fe(III)-rich deposits referred to as “iron mounds” develop when Fe(II)-rich acid mine drainage (AMD) emerges at the terrestrial surface, and aeration of the fluids induces oxidation of Fe(II), with subsequent precipitation of Fe(III) phases. As Fe(III) phases accumulate in these systems, O₂ gradients may develop in the sediments and influence the distributions and extents of aerobic and anaerobic microbiological Fe metabolism, and in turn the solubility of Fe. To determine how intrusion of O₂ into iron mound sediments influences microbial community composition and Fe metabolism, we incubated samples of these sediments in a column format. O₂ was only supplied through the top of the columns, and microbiological, geochemical, and electrochemical changes at discrete depths were determined with time. Despite the development of dramatic gradients in dissolved Fe(II) concentrations, indicating Fe(II) oxidation in shallower portions and Fe(III) reduction in the deeper portions, microbial communities varied little with depth, suggesting the metabolic versatility of organisms in the sediments with respect to Fe metabolism. Additionally, the availability of O₂ in shallow portions of the sediments influenced Fe metabolism in deeper, O₂-free sediments. Total potential (E_H + self-potential) measurements at discrete depths in the columns indicated that Fe transformations and electron transfer processes were occurring through the sediments and could explain the impact of O₂ on Fe metabolism past where it penetrates into the sediments. This work shows that O₂ availability (or lack of it) minimally influences microbial communities, but influences microbial activities beyond its penetration depth in AMD-derived Fe(III) rich sediments. Our results indicate that O₂ can modulate Fe redox state and solubility in larger volumes of iron mound sediments than only those directly exposed to O₂.

Schwertmannite: occurrence, properties, synthesis and application in environmental remediation

Schwertmannite is a typical iron-derived mineral, which was originally discovered in acid mine drainings and subsequently synthesized in the laboratory.

Sticking together: inter-species aggregation of bacteria isolated from iron snow is controlled by chemical signaling

Marine and lake snow is a continuous shower of mixed organic and inorganic aggregates falling from the upper water where primary production is substantial. These pelagic aggregates provide a niche for microbes that can exploit these physical structures and resources for growth, thus are local hot spots for microbial activity. However, processes underlying their formation remain unknown. Here, we investigated the role of chemical signaling between two co-occurring bacteria that each make up more than 10% of the community in iron-rich lakes aggregates (iron snow). The filamentous iron-oxidizing Acidithrix strain showed increased rates of Fe(II) oxidation when incubated with cell-free supernatant of the heterotrophic iron-reducing Acidiphilium strain. Amendment of Acidithrix supernatant to motile cells of Acidiphilium triggered formation of cell aggregates displaying similar morphology to those of iron snow. Comparative metabolomics enabled the identification of the aggregation-inducing signal, 2-phenethylamine, which also induced faster growth of Acidiphilium. We propose a model that shows rapid iron snow formation, and ultimately energy transfer from the photic zone to deeper water layers, is controlled via a chemically mediated interplay.