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Mackin SR, Sariol A, Diamond MS. Antibody-mediated control mechanisms of viral infections. Immunol Rev 2024; 328:205-220. [PMID: 39162394 PMCID: PMC11661935 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/21/2024]
Abstract
Antibodies generated after vaccination or natural pathogen exposure are essential mediators of protection against many infections. Most studies with viruses have focused on antibody neutralization, in which protection is conferred by the fragment antigen binding region (Fab) through targeting of different steps in the viral lifecycle including attachment, internalization, fusion, and egress. Beyond neutralization, the fragment crystallizable (Fc) region of antibodies can integrate innate and adaptive immune responses by engaging complement components and distinct Fc gamma receptors (FcγR) on different host immune cells. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of antibody neutralization and Fc effector functions, and the assays used to measure them. Additionally, we describe the contexts in which these mechanisms are associated with protection against viruses and highlight how Fc-FcγR interactions can improve the potency of antibody-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha R. Mackin
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Pathology & Immunology and Center for Genome Sciences, Lab & Genomic Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, MO 63110, USA
| | - Alan Sariol
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, MO 63110, USA
| | - Michael S. Diamond
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Pathology & Immunology and Center for Genome Sciences, Lab & Genomic Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
- Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky the Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity to Microbial Pathogens, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Glauser DL, Milho R, Lawler C, Stevenson PG. Antibody arrests γ-herpesvirus olfactory super-infection independently of neutralization. J Gen Virol 2018; 100:246-258. [PMID: 30526737 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Protecting against persistent viruses is an unsolved challenge. The clearest example for a gamma-herpesvirus is resistance to super-infection by Murid herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4). Most experimental infections have delivered MuHV-4 into the lungs. A more likely natural entry site is the olfactory epithelium. Its protection remains unexplored. Here, prior exposure to olfactory MuHV-4 gave good protection against super-infection. The protection was upstream of B cell infection, which occurs in lymph nodes, and showed redundancy between antibody and T cells. Adding antibody to virions that blocked heparan binding strongly reduced olfactory host entry - unlike in the lungs, opsonized virions did not reach IgG Fc receptor+ myeloid cells. However, the nasal antibody response to primary infection was too low to reduce host entry. Instead, the antibody acted downstream, reducing viral replication in the olfactory epithelium. This depended on IgG Fc receptor engagement rather than virion neutralization. Thus antibody can protect against natural γ-herpesvirus infection before it reaches B cells and independently of neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Glauser
- 1Division of Virology, University of Cambridge, UK
- ‡Present address: Suisselab AG, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ricardo Milho
- 1Division of Virology, University of Cambridge, UK
- §Present address: Costello Medical, Cambridge, UK
| | - Clara Lawler
- 2School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Philip G Stevenson
- 3Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
- 1Division of Virology, University of Cambridge, UK
- 2School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Australia
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Mousavinezhad-Moghaddam M, Amin AA, Rafatpanah H, Rezaee SAR. A new insight into viral proteins as Immunomodulatory therapeutic agents: KSHV vOX2 a homolog of human CD200 as a potent anti-inflammatory protein. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES 2016; 19:2-13. [PMID: 27096058 PMCID: PMC4823611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The physiologic function of the immune system is defense against infectious microbes and internal tumour cells, Therefore, need to have precise modulatory mechanisms to maintain the body homeostasis. The mammalian cellular CD200 (OX2)/CD200R interaction is one of such modulatory mechanisms in which myeloid and lymphoid cells are regulated. CD200 and CD200R molecules are membrane proteins that their immunomodulatory effects are able to suppress inflammatory responses, particularly in the privilege sites such as CNS and eyes. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), encodes a wide variety of immunoregulatory proteins which play central roles in modulating inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses in favour of virus dissemination. One such protein is a homologue of the, encoded by open reading frame (ORF) K14 and therefore called vOX2. Based on its gene expression profile during the KSHV life cycle, it is hypothesised that vOX2 modulates host inflammatory responses. Moreover, it seems that vOX2 involves in cell adhesion and modulates innate immunity and promotes Th2 immune responses. In this review the activities of mammalian CD200 and KSHV CD200 in cell adhesion and immune system modulation are reviewed in the context of potential therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abbas Ali Amin
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Houshang Rafatpanah
- Immunology Research Center, Bu-Ali Research Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyed Abdol Rahim Rezaee
- Inflammation and Inflammatory Diseases Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran,Corresponding author: Seyed Abodol Rahim Rezaee. Inflammation and Inflammatory Diseases Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. Tel: +98-51-38012768; Fax: +98-51-38436626;
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Deletion of Murid Herpesvirus 4 ORF63 Affects the Trafficking of Incoming Capsids toward the Nucleus. J Virol 2015; 90:2455-72. [PMID: 26676769 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02942-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 12/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Gammaherpesviruses are important human and animal pathogens. Despite the fact that they display the classical architecture of herpesviruses, the function of most of their structural proteins is still poorly defined. This is especially true for tegument proteins. Interestingly, a potential role in immune evasion has recently been proposed for the tegument protein encoded by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus open reading frame 63 (ORF63). To gain insight about the roles of ORF63 in the life cycle of a gammaherpesvirus, we generated null mutations in the ORF63 gene of murid herpesvirus 4 (MuHV-4). We showed that disruption of ORF63 was associated with a severe MuHV-4 growth deficit both in vitro and in vivo. The latter deficit was mainly associated with a defect of replication in the lung but did not affect the establishment of latency in the spleen. From a functional point of view, inhibition of caspase-1 or the inflammasome did not restore the growth of the ORF63-deficient mutant, suggesting that the observed deficit was not associated with the immune evasion mechanism identified previously. Moreover, this growth deficit was also not associated with a defect in virion egress from the infected cells. In contrast, it appeared that MuHV-4 ORF63-deficient mutants failed to address most of their capsids to the nucleus during entry into the host cell, suggesting that ORF63 plays a role in capsid movement. In the future, ORF63 could therefore be considered a target to block gammaherpesvirus infection at a very early stage of the infection. IMPORTANCE The important diseases caused by gammaherpesviruses in human and animal populations justify a better understanding of their life cycle. In particular, the role of most of their tegument proteins is still largely unknown. In this study, we used murid herpesvirus 4, a gammaherpesvirus infecting mice, to decipher the role of the protein encoded by the viral ORF63 gene. We showed that the absence of this protein is associated with a severe growth deficit both in vitro and in vivo that was mainly due to impaired migration of viral capsids toward the nucleus during entry. Together, our results provide new insights about the life cycle of gammaherpesviruses and could allow the development of new antiviral strategies aimed at blocking gammaherpesvirus infection at the very early stages.
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Gillet L, Frederico B, Stevenson PG. Host entry by gamma-herpesviruses--lessons from animal viruses? Curr Opin Virol 2015; 15:34-40. [PMID: 26246389 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The oncogenicity of gamma-herpesviruses (γHVs) motivates efforts to control them and their persistence makes early events key targets for intervention. Human γHVs are often assumed to enter naive hosts orally and infect B cells directly. However, neither assumption is supported by direct evidence, and vaccination with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) gp350, to block virion binding to B cells, failed to reduce infection rates. Thus, there is a need to re-evaluate assumptions about γHV host entry. Given the difficulty of analysing early human infections, potentially much can be learned from animal models. Genomic comparisons argue that γHVs colonized mammals long before humans speciation, and so that human γHVs are unlikely to differ dramatically in behaviour from those of other mammals. Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4), which like EBV and the Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus (KSHV) persists in memory B cells, enters new hosts via olfactory neurons and exploits myeloid cells to spread. Integrating these data with existing knowledge of human and veterinary γHVs suggests a new model of host entry, with potentially important implications for infection control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Gillet
- Immunology/Vaccinology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, FARAH, University of Liège, Belgium.
| | - Bruno Frederico
- Cancer Research UK, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, United Kingdom
| | - Philip G Stevenson
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, University of Queensland and Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
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Lawler C, Milho R, May JS, Stevenson PG. Rhadinovirus host entry by co-operative infection. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004761. [PMID: 25790477 PMCID: PMC4366105 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhadinoviruses establish chronic infections of clinical and economic importance. Several show respiratory transmission and cause lung pathologies. We used Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) to understand how rhadinovirus lung infection might work. A primary epithelial or B cell infection often is assumed. MuHV-4 targeted instead alveolar macrophages, and their depletion reduced markedly host entry. While host entry was efficient, alveolar macrophages lacked heparan - an important rhadinovirus binding target - and were infected poorly ex vivo. In situ analysis revealed that virions bound initially not to macrophages but to heparan+ type 1 alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). Although epithelial cell lines endocytose MuHV-4 readily in vitro, AECs did not. Rather bound virions were acquired by macrophages; epithelial infection occurred only later. Thus, host entry was co-operative - virion binding to epithelial cells licensed macrophage infection, and this in turn licensed AEC infection. An antibody block of epithelial cell binding failed to block host entry: opsonization provided merely another route to macrophages. By contrast an antibody block of membrane fusion was effective. Therefore co-operative infection extended viral tropism beyond the normal paradigm of a target cell infected readily in vitro; and macrophage involvement in host entry required neutralization to act down-stream of cell binding. All viral infections start with host entry. Entry into cells is studied widely in isolated cultures; entry into live hosts is more complicated and less well understood: our tissues have specific anatomical structures and our cells differ markedly from most cultured cells in size, shape and behaviour. The respiratory tract is a common site of virus infection. Size dictates where inhaled particles come to rest, and virus-sized particles can reach the lungs. Rhadinoviruses chronically infect both humans and economically important animals, and cause lung disease. We used a well-characterized murine example to determine how a rhadinovirus enters the lungs. At its peak, infection was prominent in epithelial cells lining the lung air spaces. However it started in macrophages, which normally clear the lungs of inhaled debris. Only epithelial cells expressed the molecules required for virus binding, but only macrophages internalized virus particles after binding; infection involved interaction between these different cell types. Blocking epithelial infection with an antibody did not stop host entry because attached antibodies increase virus uptake by lung macrophages; but an antibody that blocks macrophage infection was effective. Thus, understanding how rhadinovirus infections work in normal tissues provided important information for their control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Lawler
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Royal Children’s Hospital and University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ricardo Milho
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Janet S. May
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Philip G. Stevenson
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Royal Children’s Hospital and University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Tan CSE, Frederico B, Stevenson PG. Herpesvirus delivery to the murine respiratory tract. J Virol Methods 2014; 206:105-14. [PMID: 24928692 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Herpesvirus transmission is sporadic, and infection may be asymptomatic or present only with secondary lesions after dissemination. Consequently host entry remains ill-understood. Experimental infections can be informative, but depend on inoculations that are inherently artificial and so need validation. Mice are a widely used experimental host. Alert mice inhale readily small (5 μl) liquid volumes, and Indian ink, luciferase or radiolabel delivered thus distributed to the nasopharynx and oropharynx. Murid Herpesvirus-4 or Herpes simplex virus type 1 delivered thus infected only the nose, arguing that host entry is nasal rather than oral. Marker or virus delivery to the lung depended on general anesthesia and a large inoculum volume (30 μl), and so needs further validation of physiological relevance. While lungs could be infected at lower doses than the upper respiratory tract, tracking experiments showed that nasal inocula pass mostly into the oropharynx, even when restricted to 1 μl. Thus, the relative inefficiency of experimental upper respiratory tract infection was attributable to limited liquid retention in this site. Nonetheless low volume intranasal delivery to alert mice provides a convenient way to model experimentally an apparently natural mode of herpesvirus host entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy S E Tan
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute and Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, University of Queensland and Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia
| | - Bruno Frederico
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
| | - Philip G Stevenson
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute and Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, University of Queensland and Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia; Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK.
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Glauser D, Stevenson P. ELISA on Virus-Infected Cells. Bio Protoc 2014. [DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.1127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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Abstract
Glycoprotein B (gB) is a conserved herpesvirus virion component implicated in membrane fusion. As with many—but not all—herpesviruses, the gB of murid herpesvirus 4 (MuHV-4) is cleaved into disulfide-linked subunits, apparently by furin. Preventing gB cleavage for some herpesviruses causes minor infection deficits in vitro, but what the cleavage contributes to host colonization has been unclear. To address this, we mutated the furin cleavage site (R-R-K-R) of the MuHV-4 gB. Abolishing gB cleavage did not affect its expression levels, glycosylation, or antigenic conformation. In vitro, mutant viruses entered fibroblasts and epithelial cells normally but had a significant entry deficit in myeloid cells such as macrophages and bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. The deficit in myeloid cells was not due to reduced virion binding or endocytosis, suggesting that gB cleavage promotes infection at a postendocytic entry step, presumably viral membrane fusion. In vivo, viruses lacking gB cleavage showed reduced lytic spread in the lungs. Alveolar epithelial cell infection was normal, but alveolar macrophage infection was significantly reduced. Normal long-term latency in lymphoid tissue was established nonetheless.
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Milho R, Frederico B, Efstathiou S, Stevenson PG. A heparan-dependent herpesvirus targets the olfactory neuroepithelium for host entry. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002986. [PMID: 23133384 PMCID: PMC3486907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses are ubiquitous pathogens that cause much disease. The difficulty of clearing their established infections makes host entry an important target for control. However, while herpesviruses have been studied extensively in vitro, how they cross differentiated mucus-covered epithelia in vivo is unclear. To establish general principles we tracked host entry by Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4), a lymphotropic rhadinovirus related to the Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus. Spontaneously acquired virions targeted the olfactory neuroepithelium. Like many herpesviruses, MuHV-4 binds to heparan sulfate (HS), and virions unable to bind HS showed poor host entry. While the respiratory epithelium expressed only basolateral HS and was bound poorly by incoming virions, the neuroepithelium also displayed HS on its apical neuronal cilia and was bound strongly. Incoming virions tracked down the neuronal cilia, and either infected neurons or reached the underlying microvilli of the adjacent glial (sustentacular) cells and infected them. Thus the olfactory neuroepithelium provides an important and complex site of HS-dependent herpesvirus uptake. Herpesviruses are supremely successful mammalian parasites. Yet their infections rarely present until well established, so how new hosts are first infected has been unclear. Understanding this is likely to be crucial for infection control. Using Murid Herpesvirus-4, a relative of the Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus, we identified the olfactory neuroepithelium as a major portal of host entry. Heparan sulfate (HS) binding, which is common to many herpesviruses, played a key role. The HS of most epithelia is solely basolateral and therefore inaccessible to incoming, apical virions. The neuroepithelium, by contrast, also displayed HS on its apical surface. This comprises a dense meshwork of the neuronal cilia that mediate olfaction. Incoming virions bound to the cilia, as did a recombinant form of the virion glycoprotein H/L heterodimer. Some virions tracked down the cilia to infect neurons. Others were transferred to the microvilli of adjacent sustentacular cells. The central role of HS in this first detailed description of host entry by a mammalian herpesvirus, and the paucity of accessible HS on other epithelia, suggested that many HS-binding herpesviruses could follow a similar path.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Philip G. Stevenson
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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