Quark confinement and dual representation in (2+1)-dimensional pure Yang-Mills theory

Compact z = 2 electrodynamics in 2 + 1 dimensions: confinement with gapless modes

We consider 2+1-dimensional compact U(1) gauge theory at the Lifshitz point with a dynamical critical exponent z=2. As in the usual z=1 theory, monopoles proliferate the vacuum for any value of the coupling, generating a mass scale. The theory of the dilute monopole gas is written in terms of a nonrelativistic sine-Gordon model with two real fields. While monopoles remove some of the massless poles of the perturbative field strength propagator, a gapless mode representing the incomplete screening of monopoles remains, and is protected by a shift invariance of the original theory. Timelike Wilson loops still obey area laws, implying that minimal charges are confined, but the action of spacelike Wilson loops of linear size L goes instead as L(3).