Role of interaction anisotropy in the formation and stability of molecular templates

Supramolecular Arrangement and Rheological Properties of Bisamide Gels

We report a systematic study of the gelation behavior of nBA gelators in xylene, with odd and even n-methylene spacers between the amide groups (n = 5-10) and 17 carbons at each end. The melting temperatures (Tm0) of nBA gels are obtained from fitting our DSCN(T) model to the experimental DSC data. The found Tm0 of nBA gels is about 35 °C lower than Tm0 of the pure nBA gelators. This is reasonably well explained by a simple model combining theories of Flory-Huggins and Gibbs free energy of melting (FHM model). We attribute this depression to an increase in entropy upon melting of the gel due to mixing with the solvent. The odd-even alternation in Tm0 of nBA gels, which was also found for the nBA gelators, indicates that the solid structures inside the gels are somewhat similar. This was studied using XRD: similar 00l reflections were found in the XRD patterns of all nBA gels and their nBA gelators. For even nBA gels, the same reflections in the 19-25° (2θ) region confirm that the sheetlike supramolecular structure of the gels is analogous to the lamellar structure of the solid gelators. For odd nBA gels, a slight difference in the reflections around 20-25° (2θ) implies a somewhat different side-by-side packing of odd nBA gels compared to the solid state. This variation is found for all the odd gels, and indeed, they show distinctly different morphologies compared to the even nBA gels. The possible effect of this on the rheological properties is discussed using some inspiration from the Halpin-Tsai model for composites where nBA gels are considered to be analogous to composite materials. The change of the storage modulus (G') with the shape factor of woven fibers and sheets in nBA gels (20 wt %) indicates that a rheological odd-even effect might indeed be present.

Glassy dynamics and equilibrium state on the honeycomb lattice: Role of surface diffusion and desorption on surface crowding

The phase behavior and adsorption kinetics of hard-core particles on a honeycomb lattice are studied by means of random sequential adsorption with surface diffusion. We concentrate on reversible adsorption by introducing a desorption process into our previous model and varying the equilibrium rate constant as a control parameter. We find that an exact prediction of the temporal evolution of fractional surface coverage and the surface pressure dynamics of reversible adsorption can be achieved by use of the blocking function of a system with irreversible adsorption of highly mobile particles. For systems out of equilibrium we observe several features of glassy dynamics, such as slow relaxation dynamics, the memory effect, and aging. In particular, the analysis of our system in the limit of small desorption probability shows simple aging behavior with a power-law decay. A detailed discussion of Gibbs adsorption isotherm for nonequilibrium adsorption is given, which exhibits a hysteresis between this system and its equilibrium counterpart.

Phase separation and selective guest–host binding in multi-component supramolecular self-assembly on Au(111)

We find a phase separation and selective guest–host inclusion in the self-assembly of trimesic acid, benzenetribenzoic acid and coronene on Au(111).

Hierarchical self-assembly of di-, tri- and tetraphenylalanine peptides capped with two fluorenyl functionalities: from polymorphs to dendrites

Homopeptides with 2, 3 and 4 phenylalanine (Phe) residues and capped with fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl and fluorenylmethyl esters at the N-terminus and C-terminus, respectively, have been synthesized to examine their self-assembly capabilities. Depending on the conditions, the di- and triphenylalanine derivatives self-organize into a wide variety of stable polymorphic structures, which have been characterized: stacked braids, doughnut-like shapes, bundled arrays of nanotubes, corkscrew-like shapes and spherulitic microstructures. These highly aromatic Phe-based peptides also form incipient branched dendritic microstructures, even though they are highly unstable, making their manipulation very difficult. Conversely, the tetraphenylalanine derivative spontaneously self-assembles into stable dendritic microarchitectures made of branches growing from nucleated primary frameworks. The fractal dimension of these microstructures is ∼1.70, which provides evidence for self-similarity and two-dimensional diffusion controlled growth. DFT calculations at the M06L/6-31G(d) level have been carried out on model β-sheets since this is the most elementary building block of Phe-based peptide polymorphs. The results indicate that the antiparallel β-sheet is more stable than the parallel one, with the difference between them growing with the number of Phe residues. Thus, the cooperative effects associated with the antiparallel disposition become more favorable when the number of Phe residues increases from 2 to 4, while those of the parallel disposition remained practically constant.

Thermodynamics of 4,4'-stilbenedicarboxylic acid monolayer self-assembly at the nonanoic acid-graphite interface

A direct calorimetric measurement of the overall enthalpy change associated with self-assembly of organic monolayers at the liquid-solid interface is for most systems of interest practically impossible. In previous work we proposed an adapted Born-Haber cycle for an indirect assessment of the overall enthalpy change by using terephthalic acid monolayers at the nonanoic acid-graphite interface as a model system. To this end, the sublimation enthalpy, dissolution enthalpy, the monolayer binding enthalpy in vacuum, and a dewetting enthalpy are combined to yield the total enthalpy change. In the present study the Born-Haber cycle is applied to 4,4'-stilbenedicarboxylic acid monolayers. A detailed comparison of these two aromatic dicarboxylic acids is used to evaluate and quantify the contribution of the organic backbone for stabilization of the monolayer at the nonanoic acid-graphite interface.

Phase transition properties of the Bell-Lavis model

Using Monte Carlo calculations we analyze the order and the universality class of phase transitions into a low-density (honeycomb) phase of a triangular antiferromagnetic three-state Bell-Lavis model. The results are obtained in a whole interval of chemical potential μ corresponding to the honeycomb phase. Our results demonstrate that the phase transitions might be attributed to the three-state Potts universality class for all μ values except for the edges of the honeycomb phase existence. At the honeycomb phase and the low-density gas phase boundary the transitions become of the first order. At another, honeycomb-to-frustrated phase boundary, we observe the approach to the crossover from the three-state Potts to the Ising model universality class. We also obtain the Schottky anomaly in the specific heat close to this edge. We show that the intermediate planar phase, found in a very similar antiferromagnetic triangular Blume-Capel model, does not occur in the Bell-Lavis model.

Antiferromagnetic triangular Blume-Capel model with hard-core exclusions

Using Monte Carlo simulation, we analyze phase transitions of two antiferromagnetic (AFM) triangular Blume-Capel (BC) models with AFM interactions between third-nearest neighbors. One model has hard-core exclusions between the nearest-neighbor (1NN) particles (3NN1 model) and the other has them between the nearest-neighbor and next-nearest-neighbor particles (3NN12 model). Finite-size scaling analysis reveals that in these models, the transition from the paramagnetic to long-range order (LRO) AFM phase is either of the first order or goes through an intermediate phase which might be attributed to the Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless (BKT) type. The properties of the low-temperature phase transition to the AFM phase of the 1NN, 3NN1, and 3NN12 models are found to be very similar for almost all values of a normalized single-ion anisotropy parameter, 0 < δ < 1.5. Higher temperature behavior of the 3NN12 and 3NN1 models is rather different from that of the 1NN model. Three phase transitions are observed for the 3NN12 model: from the paramagnetic phase to the phase with domains of the LRO AFM phase at T(c), from this structure to the diluted frustrated BKT-type phase at T(2), and from the frustrated phase to the AFM LRO phase at T(1). For the 3NN12 model, T(c) > T(2) > T(1) at 0 < δ < 1.15 (range I), T(c) ≈ T(2) > T(1) at 1.15 < δ < 1.3 (range II), and T(c) = T(2) = T(1) at 1.3 < δ < 1.5 (range III). For the 3NN1 model, T(c) ≈ T(2) > T(1) at 0 < δ < 1.2 (range II) and T(c) = T(2) = T(1) at 1.2 < δ < 1.5 (range III). There is only one first-order phase transition in range III. The transition at T(c) is of the first order in range II and either of a weak first order or a second order in range I.

Solvent-dependent stabilization of metastable monolayer polymorphs at the liquid-solid interface

Self-assembly of 1,3,5-tris(4'-biphenyl-4"-carbonitrile)benzene monolayers was studied at the liquid-solid interface by scanning tunneling microscopy. Application of different fatty acid homologues as solvents revealed a solvent-induced polymorphism. Yet, tempering triggered irreversible phase transitions of the initially self-assembled monolayers, thereby indicating their metastability. Interestingly, in either case, the same thermodynamically more stable and more densely packed monolayer polymorph was obtained after thermal treatment, irrespective of the initial structure. Again, the same densely packed structure was obtained in complementary solvent-free experiments conducted under ultrahigh vacuum conditions. Thus, self-assembly of metastable polymorphs at room temperature is explained by adsorption of partially solvated species under kinetic control. The irreversible phase transitions are induced by thermal desolvation, that is, desorption of coadsorbed solvent molecules.

Statistical model for self-assembly of trimesic acid molecules into homologous series of flower phases

The statistical three-state model is proposed to describe the ordering of triangular TMA molecules into flower phases. The model is solved on a rescaled triangular lattice, assuming following intermolecular interactions: exclusion of any molecules on nearest neighbor sites, triangular trio H-bonding interactions for molecules of the same orientation on next-nearest neighbor sites, and dimeric H-bonding interactions for molecules of different ("tip-to-tip") orientations on third-nearest neighbor sites. The model allows us to obtain the analytical solution for the ground state phase diagram with all homologous series of flower phases included, starting with the honeycomb phase (n=1) and ending with the superflower structure (n=∞). Monte Carlo simulations are used to obtain the thermodynamical properties of this model. It is found that phase transitions from disordered to any of the flower phases (except n=1) undergo via intermediate correlated triangular domains structure. The transition from the disordered phase to the intermediate phase is, most likely, of the first order, while the transition from the intermediate to the flower phase is definitely first order phase transition. The phase diagrams including low-temperature flower phases are obtained. The origin of the intermediate phase, phase separation, and metastable structures are discussed.

Simulating self-organized molecular patterns using interaction-site models

Molecular building blocks interacting at the nanoscale organize spontaneously into stable monolayers that display intriguing long-range ordering motifs on the surface of atomic substrates. The patterning process, if appropriately controlled, represents a viable route to manufacture practical nanodevices. With this goal in mind, we seek to capture the salient features of the self-assembly process by means of an interaction-site model. The geometry of the building blocks, the symmetry of the underlying substrate, and the strength and range of interactions encode the self-assembly process. By means of Monte Carlo simulations, we have predicted an ample variety of ordering motifs which nicely reproduce the experimental results. Here, we explore in detail the phase behavior of the system in terms of the temperature and the lattice constant of the underlying substrate.

Mixing behavior of alkoxylated dehydrobenzo [12]annulenes at the solid-liquid interface: scanning tunneling microscopy and Monte Carlo simulations

We present a systematic scanning tunneling microscopic study on the mixing behavior of molecules (DBAs) with different alkyl substituents at the solid-liquid interface to reveal the phase behavior of complex systems. The phase behavior of binary mixtures of alkylated DBAs at the solid-liquid interface can be predicted by the 2D isomorphism coefficient. In addition, we also investigated the influence of coadsorption of template molecules on the phase behavior of DBA mixtures. Coadsorption of these molecules significantly promotes mixing of DBAs, possibly by affecting the recognition between alkyl chains. Monte Carlo simulations prove that the 2D isomorphism coefficient can predict the phase behavior at the interface. These results are helpful for the understanding of phase behavior of complex assembling systems and also for the design of programmable porous networks and hierarchical architectures at the solid-liquid interface.

Predicting the influence of a p2-symmetric substrate on molecular self-organization with an interaction-site model

An interaction-site model can a priori predict molecular self-organisation on a new substrate in Monte Carlo simulations. This is experimentally confirmed with scanning tunnelling microscopy on Fréchet dendrons of a pentacontane template. Local and global ordering motifs, inclusion molecules and a rotated unit cell are correctly predicted.

On the scalability of supramolecular networks--high packing density vs optimized hydrogen bonds in tricarboxylic acid monolayers

We present a scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) based study of 1,3,5-tris[4'-carboxy(1,1'-biphenyl-4-yl)]benzene (TCBPB) monolayers at the liquid-solid interface. In analogy to smaller aromatic 3-fold symmetric tricarboxylic acids, this compound was aimed to yield two-dimensional nanoporous networks with large cavities. Depending on the solute concentration, three crystallographically distinct phases with pores of different size and shape were observed on graphite (001) with heptanoic acid as solvent. All three phases have the same dimer motif as basic building block in common. Yet, as opposed to other carboxylic acid assemblies, these dimers are not interconnected by 2-fold O-H...O hydrogen bonds as anticipated, but by two energetically inferior C-H...O hydrogen bonds. Instead of the common head-to-head arrangement, this bonding pattern results in displaced dimers, which allow for higher packing density, and due to their lower symmetry give rise to chiral polymorphs. In accordance with studies of comparable systems, a positive correlation between solute concentration and average surface packing density is identified and rationalized by thermodynamic arguments.

Computer simulation of chiral nanoporous networks on solid surfaces

A lattice Monte Carlo (MC) model was proposed with the aim of understanding the factors affecting the chiral self-assembly of tripod-shaped molecules in two dimensions. To that end a system of flat symmetric molecules adsorbed on a triangular lattice was simulated by using the canonical ensemble method. Special attention was paid to the influence of size and composition of the building block on the morphology of the adsorbed overlayer. The obtained results demonstrated a spontaneous self-assembly into extended chiral networks with hexagonal cavities, highlighting the ability of the model to reproduce basic structural features of the corresponding experimental systems. The simulated assemblies were analyzed with respect to their structural and energetic properties resulting in quantitative estimates of the unit cell parameters and mean potential energy of the adsorbed layer. The predictive potential of the model was additionally illustrated by comparison of the obtained superstructures with the recent STM images that have been recorded for different organic tripod-shaped molecules adsorbed at the liquid/pyrolytic graphite interface.

Molecular jigsaw: pattern diversity encoded by elementary geometrical features

Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) images of self-organized monolayers of Frechet dendrons display a variety of two-dimensional ordering motifs, which are influenced by engineering the molecular interactions. An interaction-site model condenses the essential molecular properties determined by molecular mechanics modeling, which in a Monte Carlo approach successfully predicts the various ordering motifs. This confirms that geometry as well as a few salient weak interaction sites encode these structural motifs.

Scanning tunneling microscopy investigation of self-assembled CuPc/F16CuPc binary superstructures on graphite

The self-assembly of the binary molecular system comprising copper(II) phthalocyanine (CuPc) and copper-hexadecafluoro-phthalocyanine (F(16)CuPc) on graphite has been investigated by in situ low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy (LT-STM). The adsorption of this binary molecular system on graphite results in the formation of a well-ordered chessboardlike nanopattern. The in-plane molecular orientation of the guest CuPc molecules can be tuned by varying the coverage. At low coverage, the sparse CuPc molecules are randomly embedded in the host F(16)CuPc monolayer, possessing two different in-plane orientations; as the CuPc coverage increases, the in-plane molecular orientations of CuPc and F(16)CuPc become unidirectional and a highly ordered chessboardlike pattern forms. Molecular dynamic (MD) simulation results suggest that the selective and directional intermolecular hydrogen bonding determines the in-plane molecular orientation as well as the supramolecular packing arrangement.

Tunable two-dimensional binary molecular networks

A novel approach to constructing tunable and robust 2D binary molecular nanostructures on an inert graphite surface is presented. The guest molecules are embedded into a host molecular matrix and constrained via the formation of multiple intermolecular hydrogen bonds. By varying the binary molecular ratio and the molecular geometry, various molecular arrays with tunable intermolecular distances are fabricated. The results suggest a promising route for the fabrication of ordered and stable molecular nanostructure arrays for molecular sensors, molecular spintronic devices, and molecular p-n nanojunctions.

Modulated self-assembly of 4,4'-diphenyltetrathiafulvalene molecules on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite by n-tetradecane solvent

We report the formation of a binary-component self-assembled monolayer (SAM) comprising 4,4'-diphenyltetrathiafulvalene (DP-TTF) and n-tetradecane (n-C(14)H(30)) molecules with periodic strip-like phase separation structures on a highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) surface. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) imaging reveals that ordered DP-TTF single- and double-lamella are periodically tuned by ordered n- C(14)H(30) single- and double-lamella, respectively. This finding can be qualitatively understood in terms of a phase field model, in which the interplay of three ingredients, including free energy of the binary-component solution monolayer, phase boundary energy and surface stress, determines the final equilibrium sizes of the ordered DP-TTF and n- C(14)H(30) phases in the binary-component SAM. Furthermore, anisotropy of the surface stress breaks the symmetry of the substrate and causes the n- C(14)H(30) molecules to arrange along preferential substrate 010 directions. The orientation of the n-C(14)H(30) molecule stripes further guides the directions of the DP-TTF lamellar structures. In addition, scanning tunneling spectra (STS) of the individual DP-TTF and n- C(14)H(30) molecules in the ordered monolayer show a remarkable difference in I(V) curves on the HOPG substrate.