Particle motion induced by bubble cavitation

Ball motion and bubble ripples in the interaction of cavitation bubble-elastic ball-curved wall

Elastic ball motion and cavitation bubble ripples in cavitation bubble-elastic ball-curved wall interaction was investigated experimentally using single-electrode periodic discharge bubble generation technology and high-speed photography. It was found that the hard ball undergoes a process of "push-pull-push-pull" as the dimensionless bubble-ball distance increases, while the elastic ball undergoes a process of "push-pull" in the same scenario. This is mainly due to the combined effects of the expansion ejection effect, the reverse thrust of liquid jet and the secondary Bjerknes force of cavitation bubble and its rebound bubble, which are strengthened or weakened. The radial vibration of the elastic ball causes a continuous secondary Bjerknes force attraction effect between the ball and the wall, similar to that between an acoustic bubble and a wall. In the interaction of "cavitation bubble-elastic ball-curved wall," there is a state of equilibrium stability where the centerline of the "bubble-ball" coincides with the centerline of the "bubble-wall." Both the ball and the bubble will move towards this equilibrium position. This is a result of the three forces with different starting and ending points-the "bubble-wall" secondary Bjerknes force, the "ball-wall" secondary Bjerknes force, and the "bubble-ball" interaction force-reaching a condition of equilibrium. The evolution of the cavitation bubble is usually dominated by toroidal jets, sometimes forming multi-layered nested toroidal jets (annular cylindrical jet). The surface tension waves of the bubble, the elastic modulus waves and the curvature waves of the elastic ball work together to form cavitation bubble ripples. Under the primary intensification of the bubble's rapid collapse and the secondary intensification of the wall effect, the bubble ripples are reinforced, leading to the formation of multi-layered nested toroidal jets.

Theoretical and experimental research on the impacts of the Joukowsky hydrofoils on the bubble collapse dynamics within a confined space

The present paper investigates the bubble collapse dynamics near hydrofoils within a confined space. Experiments involving high-speed photography reveal in detail the typical bubble morphological evolution near different hydrofoils between two glass plates (namely the confined space), and the partitioning of the thickness-related and camber-related parameters is analyzed quantitatively. Based on conformal transformation, the liquid velocity field and Kelvin impulse are used to analyze the bubble collapse characteristics qualitatively and quantitatively, including the bubble interface motion, cross-sectional roundness, and collapse jet. The main conclusions are summarized as follows. (1) The bubble morphological evolution near the hydrofoils can be categorized into five typical collapse shapes, and their partition ranges are significantly affected by the thickness-related and camber-related parameters. (2) The thickness-related hydrofoil parameter positively correlated with the bubble interface motion and cross-sectional roundness, while the camber-related parameter is inversely correlated with them. (3) High-velocity regions between the bubble and the hydrofoil head and tail endpoints explain the bubble interface depressions observed in the experiments.

Experimental and numerical research on jet dynamics of cavitation bubble near dual particles

The current paper delves into the jet dynamics arising from a cavitation bubble in proximity to a dual-particle system, employing both experimental methodology and numerical simulation. The morphological development of a laser-induced bubble as well as the production of jets are captured by utilizing high-speed photography. The principles of bubble morphology evolution and jet formation are revealed by a OpenFOAM solver, which takes into account the effects of two-phase fluid compressibility, phase changes, heat transfer, and surface tension. Fluid temperature variations induced by bubble oscillations are discussed. The results indicate that the jet dynamics can be categorized into three cases, i.e. bubble-splitting double jets, impacting single jet, non-impacting double jets. For bubble-splitting double jets, bubble splitting is induced by an annular pressure gradient towards the bubble axis. This resulted in the production of two unequal-sized sub-bubbles, which subsequently produced double jets in opposite directions. The fluid temperature close to the bubble interface is low, while the bubble center is high. For impacting single jet, it is induced by a conical pressure gradient towards the nearest particle and the jet impacts the particle. The fluid temperature is low near the jet and high near the particle. When the jet penetrates the bubble interface, the temperature inside the bubble reaches its peak. For non-impacting double jets, they are induced by pressure gradients facing each other and they do not impact particles. The temperature inside the bubble increases with the proximity of the two jets.

Investigation of mechanisms of shock wave generation by collapse of cavitation bubbles near particles

The mechanism of generation of shock waves by the collapse of a cavitation bubble near a single particle or dual particles is numerically investigated using OpenFOAM. For the single-particle case, shock waves during bubble inception and jet impacting on the particle surface are revealed in detail. The pressure induced on the particle by the inception shock wave of the bubble decreases with increasing bubble-particle distance, and the pressure is proportional to 1/r1.26 (r being the distance from the center of the shock wave). For the dual particles, the evolution of the neck structure is closely related to the generation mechanism of the shock wave. At extremely close particle-bubble distances, two shock waves propagating in opposite directions are emitted outside and inside the bubble after two necks collide. At long particle-bubble distances, a shock wave is emitted after the neck contracts, and simultaneously the bubble splits into two daughter bubbles. The energy of the shock wave generated by the neck constriction (i.e., the pressure at its generation location) first increases and then decreases with increasing bubble-particle distance. For unequal-sized double particles, the size of the daughter bubble depends on the bubble-particle distance and the particle size. These findings provide new perspectives for understanding the damage sustained by hydro-mechanical components operating in sand-laden water flows.

Continuous motion of particles attached to cavitation bubbles

Microbubble-mediated therapeutic gene or drug delivery is a promising strategy for various cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), but the efficiency and precision need to be improved. Here, we propose a cavitation bubble-driven drug delivery strategy that can be applied to CVDs. A bubble-pulse-driving theory was proposed, and the formula of time-averaged thrust driven by bubble pulses was derived. The continuous motion of particles propelled by cavitation bubbles in the ultrasonic field is investigated experimentally by high-speed photography. The cavitation bubbles grow and collapse continuously, and generate periodic pulse thrust to drive the particles to move in the liquid. Particles attached to bubbles will move in various ways, such as ejection, collision, translation, rotation, attitude variation, and circular motion. The cavity attached to the particle is a relatively large cavitation bubble, which does not collapse to the particle surface, but to the axis of the bubble perpendicular to the particle surface. The cavitation bubble expands spherically and collapses asymmetrically, which makes the push on the particle generated by the bubble expansion greater than the pull on the particle generated by the bubble collapse. The time-averaged force of the cavitation bubble during its growth and collapse is the cavitation-bubble-driven force that propels the particle. Both the cavitation-bubble-driven force and the primary Bjerknes force act in the same position on the particle surface, but in different directions. In addition to the above two forces, particles are also affected by the mass force acting on the center of mass and the motion resistance acting on the surface, so the complex motion of particles can be explained.

Jet dynamics of a cavitation bubble near unequal-sized dual particles

The jet dynamics of a cavitation bubble near unequal-sized dual particles is investigated employing OpenFOAM, and the effects of the jets on the particles are quantitatively analyzed in terms of their pressure impacts. Different from single-particle cases, the necks that evolve between dual particles are closely linked to the formation mechanism of the jets. Based on the simulation results, the jet dynamics can be divided into five scenarios: (1) the contraction of the annular depression produced by the collision of the two necks causes the bubble to split into two daughter bubbles and generates a single jet inside each daughter bubble; (2) the annular depression impacts the particle, leading to the bubble to fracture and producing a single jet inside a daughter bubble; (3) the bubble is split by a single neck constriction and produces a single jet; (4) the bubble is split by a single neck constriction and generates two jets; and (5) the bubble is split by the contraction of two necks and produces four jets together with three daughter bubbles. As the bubble-particle distance or the radius ratio of the dual particles increases, the maximum force on the small particle generated by the bubble decreases.

Experimental study on influence of particle shape on shockwave from collapse of cavitation bubble

The bubble dynamics under the influence of particles is an unavoidable issue in many cavitation applications, with a fundamental aspect being the shockwave affected by particles during bubble collapse. In our experiments, the method of spark-induced bubbles was used, while a high-speed camera and a piezoresistive pressure sensor were utilized to investigate how particle shape affects the evolution of shockwaves. Through the high-speed photography, we found that the presence of the particle altered the consistency of the liquid medium around the bubble, which result in the emitting of water hammer shockwave and implosion shockwave respectively during the collapse of the bubble. This stratification effect was closely related to the bubble-particle relative distance φ and particle shape δ. Specifically, when the bubble-particle relative distance φ < 1.34 e-0.10δ, particles disrupted the medium consistency around the bubbles and led to a nonspherical collapse and the consequent stratification of the shockwave. By measuring the stratified shockwave intensity affected by different particle shapes, we found that the stratified shockwave intensity experienced varying degrees of attenuation. Furthermore, as the particle shape δ increased, the attenuation of the particle on shockwave intensity gradually reduced. These new findings hold significant theoretical implications for elucidating cavitation erosion mechanisms in liquid-solid two-phase flows and applications and prevention strategies in liquid-solid two-phase cavitation fields.

Effect of chemical species and temperature on the stability of air nanobubbles

The colloidal stability of air nanobubbles (NBs) was studied at different temperatures (0-30 °C) and in the presence of sulfates, typically found in mining effluents, in a wide range of Na2SO4 concentrations (0.001 to 1 M), along with the effect of surfactants (sodium dodecyl sulfate), chloride salts (NaCl), and acid/base reagents at a pH range from 4 to 9. Using a nanobubble generator based on hydrodynamic cavitation, 1.2 × 108 bubbles/mL with a typical radius of 84.66 ± 7.88 nm were generated in deionized water. Multiple evidence is provided to prove their presence in suspension, including the Tyndall effect, dynamic light scattering, and nanoparticle size analysis. Zeta potential measurements revealed that NBs are negatively charged even after two months (from - 19.48 ± 1.89 to - 10.13 ± 1.71 mV), suggesting that their stability is due to the negative charge on their surface. NBs were found to be more stable in alkaline solutions compared to acidic ones. Further, low amounts of both chloride and sulfate dissolved salts led to a reduction of the size of NBs. However, when high amounts of dissolved salts are present, NBs are more likely to coalesce, and their size to be increased. Finally, the investigation of the stability of air NBs at low temperatures revealed a non-monotonic relationship between temperature and NBs upon considering water self-ionization and ion mobility. This research aims to open a new frontier towards the application of the highly innovative NBs technology on the treatment of mining, mineral, and metal processing effluents, which are challenging aqueous solutions containing chloride and sulfate species.

Effect of Ultrasonic Frequency on Structure and Corrosion Properties of Coating Formed on Magnesium Alloy via Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation

This study explores the application of ultrasonic vibration during plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) to enhance the corrosion resistance of magnesium (Mg) alloy. To this end, three different ultrasonic frequencies of 0, 40, and 135 kHz were utilized during PEO. In the presence of ultrasonic waves, the formation of a uniform and dense oxide layer on Mg alloys is facilitated. This is achieved through plasma softening, acoustic streaming, and improved mass transport for successful deposition and continuous reforming of the oxide layer. The oxide layer exhibits superior protective properties against corrosive environments due to the increase in compactness. Increasing ultrasonic frequency from 40 to 135 kHz, however, suppresses the optimum growth of the oxide layer due to the occurrence of super-soft plasma swarms, which results in a low coating thickness. The integration of ultrasonic vibration with PEO presents a promising avenue for practical implementation in industries seeking to enhance the corrosion protection of Mg alloys, manipulating microstructures and composition.

Role of Bubble Evolution in the Bubble-Propelled Janus Micromotors

Bubble-propelled Janus micromotors have attracted extensive attention in recent years and have been regarded as powerful tools in the environmental and medical fields due to their excellent movement ability. The movement ability can mainly be attributed to the periodic growth, detachment, and/or collapse of the bubble. However, subjected to the experimental conditions, the mechanism of bubble evolution on the motion of the micromotor could not be elucidated clearly. In this work, a finite element method was employed for exploring the role of bubble evolution in bubble-propelled Janus micromotors, which emphasized the growth and collapse of bubbles. After the proposed model was verified by the scallop theorem, the influence of the growth and rapid collapse of bubbles on micromotors was investigated. Results show that the growth and collapse of a bubble can drive the micromotor to produce a displacement, but the displacement caused by a bubble collapse is significantly greater than that caused by bubble growth. The reasons for this phenomenon are analyzed and explained. In addition to the influence of bubble size, the collapse time of the bubble is also investigated.

Research on synergistic erosion by cavitation and sediment: A review

Sediment erosion frequently occurs in areas with high incidences of cavitation. The collaborative impact of abrasion and cavitation presents a host of challenges, threats, and damages to hydraulic engineering. However, little is known about the synergistic wear mechanism, and research conclusions remain inconsistent. In this work, relevant studies on synergistic erosion have been collected, classified, and analyzed. Presently, research on synergistic wear primarily operates at the macro and micro levels. The microscopic level enables the visualization and quantification of the process by which particles gain momentum from bubbles, the trajectory of particle acceleration, and the mechanism that triggers strong interactions between bubble-particle. At the macro level, erosion is understood as the summation of damage effects on the wall that is caused by the interaction between a plethora of bubbles of varying scales and numerous particles. The synergistic bubble-particle effect is reflected in the dual inhibiting or promoting mechanism. Furthermore, while numerical simulations could be realized by coupling cavitation, multiphase flow, and erosion models, their accuracy is not infallible. In the future, the dual role of particles, and particles driven by micro-jets or shock waves should be fully considered when establishing a combined erosion model. In addition, enhancing the influence of flow field and boundary parameters around bubbles and utilizing FSI would improve the predictive accuracy of erosion location and erosion rate. This work helps to elucidate the combined wear mechanism of hydraulic machinery components in sediment-laden flow environments and provides a theoretical basis for the design, manufacture, processing, and maintenance of hydraulic machinery.

Theoretical investigation and experimental support for the cavitation bubble dynamics near a spherical particle based on Weiss theorem and Kelvin impulse

In the present paper, the laser-induced cavitation bubble dynamics near a fixed spherical particle is comprehensively investigated based on the Weiss theorem, the Kelvin impulse theory and the high-speed photography experiment. Firstly, the applicability range of the theoretical model in the time and the space is statistically obtained based on sufficient experimental results. Then, the in-depth theoretical analysis is carried out in terms of the liquid flow field and the bubble Kelvin impulse with the corresponding experimental results as the reasonable support. In addition, the theoretical prediction model of the bubble movement is established and experimentally fitted from the analytic expression of the Kelvin impulse. Through our research, it is found that: (1) the applicability range of the Kelvin impulse theory for the bubble near the spherical particle is approximately the dimensionless distance between the bubble and particle (γ) greater than 0.50. (2) The effect of the particle on the liquid velocity between the bubble and the particle is mainly manifested in the form of the image bubble, which always causes the liquid velocity in this region to be significantly lower than other surrounding regions. (3) The average movement velocity of the bubble centroid can be reasonably predicted by establishing a directly proportional function between the Kelvin impulse and the velocity with the relationship constant (α) equal to 3.57×10^-6 ± 1.63×10^-7 kg.

Cavitation in a soft porous material

We study the collapse and expansion of a cavitation bubble in a deformable porous medium. We develop a continuum-scale model that couples compressible fluid flow in the pore network with the elastic response of a solid skeleton. Under the assumption of spherical symmetry, our model can be reduced to an ordinary differential equation that extends the Rayleigh-Plesset equation to bubbles in soft porous media. The extended Rayleigh-Plesset equation reveals that finite-size effects lead to the breakdown of the universal scaling relation between bubble radius and time that holds in the infinite-size limit. Our data indicate that the deformability of the porous medium slows down the collapse and expansion processes, a result with important consequences for wide-ranging phenomena, from drug delivery to spore dispersion.

Particulate Projectiles Driven by Cavitation Bubbles

The removal of surface-attached particles with cavitation bubbles is usually attributed to the jetting or shear stresses when bubbles collapse. In this Letter, we report an unexpected phenomenon that millimeter-sized spherical particles made of heavy metals (e.g., stainless steel), when initially resting on a fixed rigid substrate, are suddenly accelerated like projectiles through the production of nearby laser-induced cavitation bubbles of similar sizes. We show experimentally and theoretically that the motion of a particle with radius R_{p} is determined by the maximum bubble radius R_{b,max}, the initial distance from the laser focus to the center of the particle L_{0}, and the initial azimuth angle φ_{0}. We identify two dominant regimes for the particle's sudden acceleration, namely, the unsteady liquid inertia dominated regime and the bubble contact dominated regime, determined by R_{b,max}R_{p}/L_{0}^{2}. We find the nondimensional maximum vertical displacement of the particle follows the fourth power and the square power scaling laws for respective regimes, which is consistent with the experimental results. Our findings can be applied to nonintrusive particle manipulation from solid substrates in a liquid.

Clarification of regimes determining sonochemical reactions in solid particle suspensions

Although there has been extensive research on the factors that influence sonochemical reactions in solid particle suspensions, the role that solid particles play in the process remains unclear. Herein, the effect of monodisperse silica particles (10-100 μm, 0.05-10 vol%) on the sonochemical activity (20 kHz) was investigated using triiodide formation monitoring and luminol tests. The results demonstrate that, in the particle size range considered, the sonochemical yields were enhanced in dilute suspensions (0.05-1 vol%), while further particle addition in semi-dilute suspensions (1-10 vol%) decreased the yields. Two regimes, namely the site-increasing regime and sound-damping regime, are identified in respect of the enhancing and inhibiting effects of the particles, respectively, and their dependence on particle characteristics is analyzed. Both regimes are confirmed based on the cavitation erosion test results or cavitation noise analysis. The clarification of the two regimes provides a better understanding of the dominant factors controlling sonochemistry in the presence of solid particles, as well as a guide for sonochemical efficiency prediction.

Experimental study of temporal dynamics of cavitation bubbles selectively attached to the solid surfaces of different hydrophobicity under the action of ultrasound

In this work, we experimentally investigated the dynamics of vapor-gas bubbles arising in distilled water under the action of ultrasound (US), near and on the surface of solid plates with various surface properties. In the experiments, we used the plates made of Teflon, acrylic glass, and amorphous quartz, with various hydrophobic properties (contact angle). The experiments showed a significant effect of surface properties on the dynamics of bubbles oscillating near and on a solid surface under the influence of ultrasound. In the case of a hydrophobic surface (Teflon), steady attachment of bubbles is observed, the surface area covered by the bubbles grows according to a law close to linear, and then it reaches a plateau. For less hydrophobic surfaces, the drift and rising of bubbles along the plates are observed, as a result of which, the area covered by the bubbles grows less rapidly over time. When the ultrasound is switched off some bubbles located near and on the surface of the acrylic plate float and drag other bubbles with them, differ from the surface of Teflon. This behavior of the bubbles limits both their maximum possible diameter and the maximum solid surface area covered by the bubble. In addition, experiments showed a significant effect of the concentration of gas dissolved in a liquid on the process of bubble formation: a decrease in gas concentration led to a qualitative change in the time dependence of the surface area covered by the bubbles; in the case of long-term degassing of water using ultrasound, the formation of extended bubble clusters on all solid surfaces becomes impossible.

Directional transport and random motion of particles in ALF ultrasonic cavitation structure

The motion of particles of different properties and sizes in ALF ultrasonic cavitation structure is investigated experimentally with high-speed photography. Particles tend to transport along the bubble chain and move towards the focus repeatedly and predictably in ALF cavitation structures. Particles at the focus aggregate and separate alternately over time. The separation of particles mainly occurs in the expansion process of cavitation bubbles, while the movement and aggregation of particles mostly take place during the collapse stage. The directional transport of particles along the bubble chain of ALF cavitation cloud and the random aggregation and dispersion at the focus of ALF are all related to the cavitation bubbles attached to the particles. The directional transportation (predictable, repeatable and pipeline-free) and aggregation of particles in ALF cavitation clouds may be used in special occasions, for example, drug delivery and targeted therapy.

Experimental investigations of three laser-induced synchronized bubbles

Herein, we investigated experimentally the dynamics of three laser-induced, same-sized, symmetrically aligned, and synchronized bubbles. Three synchronized laser beams split from the same beam using a Diffractive Optical Element splitter were focused on water, and then we obtained three bubbles. Another nanosecond laser pulse was used to probe the bubbles to obtain shadowgraphs. The exact delay of the excited and detected light was controlled using a delay generator. The results revealed that the maximum volumes of bubbles in arrays decrease as the normalized distance falls, while the lifetimes and translation increase. It was explained by the interaction between the acoustic radiation of bubbles and the surrounding bubbles. The shrinkage of linear bubble arrays exists an anomaly. The center bubbles were stretched, to ellipsoid, stick, even fractured, by the peripheral bubbles. The closer they are, the more distinct is the above phenomenon. However, when the normalized distance was sufficiently small, instead of being stretched, the center bubbles were compressed to disk shape and thus shrank with the whole array. Finally, the dependence of the distance on the energy transfer of the bubble system is also discussed.

Cavitation bubble interaction with a rigid spherical particle on a microscale

Cavitation bubble collapse close to a submerged sphere on a microscale is investigated numerically using a finite volume method in order to determine the likelihood of previously suspected mechanical effects to cause bacterial cell damage, such as impact of a high speed water jet, propagation of bubble emitted shock waves, shear loads, and thermal loads. A grid convergence study and validation of the employed axisymmetric numerical model against the Gilmore's equation is performed for a case of a single microbubble collapse due to a sudden ambient pressure increase. Numerical simulations of bubble-sphere interaction corresponding to different values of nondimensional bubble-sphere standoff distance δ and their size ratio ε are carried out. The obtained results show vastly different bubble collapse dynamics across the considered parameter space, from the development of a fast thin annular jet towards the sphere to an almost spherical bubble collapse. Although some similarities in bubble shape progression to previous studies on larger bubbles exist, it can be noticed that bubble jetting is much less likely to occur on the considered scale due to the cushioning effects of surface tension on the intensity of the collapse. Overall, the results show that the mechanical loads on a spherical particle tend to increase with a sphere-bubble size ratio ε, and decrease with their distance δ. Additionally, the results are discussed with respect to bacteria eradication by hydrodynamic cavitation. Potentially harmful mechanical effects of bubble-sphere interaction on a micro scale are identified, namely the collapse-induced shear loads with peaks of a few megapascals and propagation of bubble emitted shock waves, which could cause spatially highly variable compressive loads with peaks of a few hundred megapascals and gradients of 100 MPa/μm.

Numerical Study of the Interaction between a Collapsing Bubble and a Movable Particle in a Free Field

This study numerically investigates the interactions between a collapsing bubble and a movable particle with a comparable size in a free field, which is associated with the microscopic mechanisms of the synergetic effects of cavitation erosion and particle abrasion on the damages of materials in fluid machineries. A new solver on OpenFOAM based on direct numerical simulations with the volume of fluid (VOF) method capturing the interface of a bubble and with the overset grid method handling the motion of the particle was developed to achieve the fluid–structure interaction (FSI). The results show that bubbles in cases with stand-off parameter χ (defined as (d0−Rp)/R0), where d0 is the initial distance between the centers of the bubble and particle, and Rp,R0 are the particle’s radius and the initial radius of the bubble respectively >1, experience spherical-shaped collapse under the influence of the approaching particle, which is attracted by the collapsing bubble. The bubbles in these cases no longer present non-spherical collapse. Additionally, a force balance model to account for the particle dynamics was established, in which the particle velocity inversely depends on the size of the particle, and approximately on the second power of the initial distance from the bubble. This analytical result accords with the numerical results and is valid for cases with χ>1 only, since it is based on the theory of spherical bubbles. These conclusions are important for further study of the interactions between a bubble and a movable particle near a rigid wall.

Classification of regimes determining ultrasonic cavitation erosion in solid particle suspensions

Although the factors that influence ultrasonic cavitation erosion in solid particle suspensions have been extensively studied, the role that solid particles play in the cavitation process remains poorly understood. The ultrasonic cavitation erosion of AISI 1045 carbon steel was studied in the presence of monodisperse silica particles (10-100 μm, 0.5-20 vol%) suspended in transformer oil. Based on our results, we propose an overview of the possible influencing mechanisms of particle addition for specific particle sizes and concentrations. Four major regimes, namely a viscosity-enhancing regime (V), a particle-impinging regime (I), a particle-shielding regime (S), and a nuclei-adding regime (A) are identified, and their dependence on suspended particle characteristics is analyzed. The VISA regimes, in essence, reflect the viscous and inertial effects of suspended particles, and the way in which particle-particle interactions and heterogeneous nucleation affect erosion. This regime-based framework provides a better understanding of the dominant factors controlling the erosive wear caused by cavitation in the presence of solid particles, and provides a guide for erosion prediction and prevention.

Experimental investigations of the particle motions induced by a laser-generated cavitation bubble

The interactions between a laser-generated cavitation bubble and a spherical particle are investigated experimentally with the aid of high-speed camera. Both the cavitation bubble dynamics and its induced particle moving dynamics are clearly recorded and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Influences of two essential parameters (including the bubble-particle distance and the particle/bubble radius ratio) on the phenomenon are given and discussed. Furthermore, the underlying physical mechanisms are discussed based on the calculations of the radiation pressure and the generations of the micro-jet. Our results reveal that the distance between the cavitation bubble and the particle shows significant influences on the phenomenon. For different radius ratios, the maximum particle displacement varies especially for the small stand-off distance.

Low-intensity ultrasound induced cavitation and streaming in oxygen-supersaturated water: Role of cavitation bubbles as physical cleaning agents

A number of acoustic and fluid-dynamic phenomena appear in ultrasonic cleaning baths and contribute to physical cleaning of immersed surfaces. Propagation and repeated reflection of ultrasound within cleaning baths build standing-wave-like acoustic fields; when an ultrasound intensity gradient appears in the acoustic fields, it can in principle induce steady streaming flow. When the ultrasound intensity is sufficiently large, cavitation occurs and oscillating cavitation bubbles are either trapped in the acoustic fields or advected in the flow. These phenomena are believed to produce mechanical action to remove contaminant particles attached at material surfaces. Recent studies suggest that the mechanical action of cavitation bubbles is the dominant factor of particle removal in ultrasonic cleaning, but the bubble collapse resulting from high-intensity ultrasound may be violent enough to give rise to surface erosion. In this paper, we aim to carefully examine the role of cavitation bubbles from ultrasonic cleaning tests with varying dissolved gas concentration in water. In our cleaning tests using 28-kHz ultrasound, oxygen-supersaturated water is produced by oxygen-microbubble aeration and used as a cleaning solution, and glass slides spin-coated with silica particles of micron/submicron sizes are used to define cleaning efficiency. High-speed camera recordings and Particle Image Velocimetry analysis with a pressure oscillation amplitude of 1.4 atm at the pressure antinode show that the population of cavitation bubbles increases and streaming flow inside the bath is promoted, as the dissolved oxygen supersaturation increases. The particle removal is found to be achieved mainly by the action of cavitation bubbles, but there exists optimal gas supersaturation to maximize the removal efficiency. Our finding suggests that low-intensity ultrasound irradiation under the optimal gas supersaturation in cleaning solutions allows for having mild bubble dynamics without violent collapse and thus cleaning surfaces without cavitation erosion. Finally, observations of individual bubble dynamics and the resulting particle removal are reported to further support the role of cavitation bubbles as cleaning agents.

Evolution of Cavitation Bubble in Tap Water by Continuous-Wave Laser Focused on a Metallic Surface

As an example of photon-matter interaction, we experimentally investigate the temporal evolution of a millimeter-sized cavitation bubble, induced by focusing a continuous-wave laser on a metallic plate in tap water. Our major interests are to understand the mechanism of bubble growth/shrinkage for a long time duration up to O(10²) seconds and to draw the time-dependency relation of a bubble size, depending on the incident laser power. With the time passed after the laser with different power is focused, it is found that the phase change and/or transport of dissolved gas into the bubble play a dominant role in determining the bubble growth and shrinkage. Thus, we propose two stages in terms of time and three regimes depending on the incident energy, in which the evolutions of cavitation bubble in short and long time durations are distinctively identified. In regime I (lower incident power), the water nearby the focal point undergoes a phase change, resulting in an initial rapid growth of a bubble (first stage), but the convection flow due to locally heated surface causes the bubble to shrink at later times (second stage). As the laser power increases (regime III), more dissolved gas in the surrounding water enters the growing bubble and prevents the water phase from being absorbed into the bubble. Thus, the bubble growth is dominated by the dissolved gas. Between regimes I and III, there is a transitional regime II in which both the phase change of water and the dissolved gas contribute to the bubble evolution. We further our understandings by developing the relations about the time-dependency of bubble size for each stage and regime, which agree well with the measured data. The scaling relations are also validated with different conditions of liquid such as degassed water and NaCl solution. While previous studies have mostly focused on the nano- and/or microsized bubble generation in a very short time (less than 1 s), we think that the present results will extend our knowledge on how to predict and control the size of laser-induced cavitation bubble for longer time duration.

Improved Instruments and Methods for the Photographic Study of Spark-Induced Cavitation Bubbles

An underwater spark is able to induce a cavitation bubble, and this principle has been utilized to make cavitation bubble generators for several decades. In this paper, an improved instrument for generating spark-induced cavitation bubbles is described in detail. The voltage time history inside the instrument is measured to show the working process and principle. Cavitation bubbles are generated by the instrument and recorded by a high-speed camera. The radius time history of the bubble is obtained using an image processing algorithm. The ratio of its minimum radius to its maximum radius reaches ~0.2, which indicates that there is little undissolved gas in the bubble. With the radius time history, the velocity fields around the bubbles were calculated by the 1D continuity flow equation, and the pressure fields were calculated by the 1D Euler equation. One cavitation bubble is chosen and discussed in detail. The velocity and pressure on the bubble interface achieve their maximums (~25 m/s and ~1.2 MPa, respectively) at the same time, when the radius is at its minimum (~1 mm). Some statistical results are also presented to show the effect of the instrument.

Efficient Propulsion and Hovering of Bubble-Driven Hollow Micromotors underneath an Air-Liquid Interface

Bubble-driven micromotors have attracted substantial interest due to their remarkable self-motile and cargo-delivering abilities in biomedical or environmental applications. Here, we developed a hollow micromotor that experiences fast self-propulsion underneath an air-liquid interface by periodic bubble growth and collapse. The collapsing of a single microbubble induces a ∼1 m·s^-1 impulsive jetting flow that instantaneously pushes the micromotor forward. Unlike previously reported micromotors propelled by the recoiling of bubbles, cavitation-induced jetting further utilizes the energy stored in the bubble to propel the micromotor and thus enhances the energy conversion efficiency by 3 orders of magnitude. Four different modes of propulsion are, for the first time, identified by quantifying the dependence of propulsion strength on microbubble size. Meanwhile, the vertical component of the jetting flow counteracts the buoyancy of the micromotor-bubble dimer and facilitates counterintuitive hovering underneath the air-liquid interface. This work not only enriches the understanding of the propulsion mechanism of bubble-driven micromotors but also gives insight into the physical aspects of cavitation bubble dynamics near the air-liquid interface on the microscale.

Motion of a Free-Settling Spherical Particle Driven by a Laser-Induced Bubble

We document experimentally four different interactions of a laser-induced bubble and a free-settling particle, with different combinations of the geometric and physical parameters of the system. Our force balance model shows that four nondimensional factors involving the particle radius a, the maximum bubble radius R_{max}, the initial separation distance l_{0} between the particle center and the bubble center, the fluid viscosity μ_{f}, and the particle and fluid densities ρ_{p} and ρ_{f}, respectively, in detail l_{0}/R_{max}, a/R_{max}, ρ_{p}/ρ_{f}, and μ^{*}=μ_{f}T_{c}/ρ_{f}R_{max}^{2}, where T_{c}=0.915R_{max}sqrt[ρ_{f}/(p_{∞}-p_{v})], influence the particle-bubble dynamics, and reasonably predict the maximum particle velocity and the limiting condition when the particle starts to "bounce off" the bubble during bubble growth. In particular, we also discover the high-speed ejection of the particle, and a cavity behind the particle, in cases when initially the particle is in very close proximity to the bubble. These observations offer new insights into the causal mechanism for the enhanced cavitation erosion in silt-laden water.

The Self-Propulsion of the Spherical Pt–SiO2 Janus Micro-Motor

The double-faced Janus micro-motor, which utilizes the heterogeneity between its two hemispheres to generate self-propulsion, has shown great potential in water cleaning, drug delivery in micro/nanofluidics, and provision of power for a novel micro-robot. In this paper, we focus on the self-propulsion of a platinum–silica (Pt–SiO₂) spherical Janus micro-motor (JM), which is one of the simplest micro-motors, suspended in a hydrogen peroxide solution (H₂O₂). Due to the catalytic decomposition of H₂O₂ on the Pt side, the JM is propelled by the established concentration gradient known as diffusoiphoretic motion. Furthermore, as the JM size increases to O (10 μm), oxygen molecules nucleate on the Pt surface, forming microbubbles. In this case, a fast bubble propulsion is realized by the microbubble cavitation-induced jet flow. We systematically review the results of the above two distinct mechanisms: self-diffusiophoresis and microbubble propulsion. Their typical behaviors are demonstrated, based mainly on experimental observations. The theoretical description and the numerical approach are also introduced. We show that this tiny motor, though it has a very simple structure, relies on sophisticated physical principles and can be used to fulfill many novel functions.