Attosecond angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy

Heterodyne analysis of high-order partial waves in attosecond photoionization of helium

Partial wave analysis is key to interpretation of the photoionization of atoms and molecules on the attosecond timescale. Here we propose a heterodyne analysis approach, based on the delay-resolved anisotropy parameters to reveal the role played by high-order partial waves during photoionization. This extends the Reconstruction of Attosecond Beating By Interference of Two-photon Transitions technique into the few-photon regime. We demonstrate that even for moderate ( ~ 1TW/cm2) intensities, near-infrared-assisted photoionization of helium through Rydberg states results in a tiny contribution from the g0 wave, which has a significant impact on the photoelectron angular distributions via interference with the s- and d0-waves. This modulation also causes a substantial deviation in the angular distribution of the recovered spectral phase shift. Our analysis provides an efficient method to resolve isolated partial wave contributions beyond the perturbative regime, and paves the way towards understanding resonance-enhancement of partial waves.

Design of a compact, high-resolution velocity-map imaging spectrometer for attosecond spectroscopy

We present the design of a VMI spectrometer optimized for attosecond spectroscopy in the 0-40 eV energy range. It is based on a compact three-electrode configuration where the lens shape, size, and material have been optimized using numerical simulations to improve the spectral resolution by a factor of ∼5 relative to the initial design [Eppink and Parker, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68, 3477-3484 (1997)] while keeping a flat spectral response in the 10-40 eV range. The experimental performance is tested using an attosecond source based on high-order harmonic generation. A good agreement is observed between the measured and simulated spectral resolution. At low kinetic energy, the electrostatic lens remains the limiting factor, while the high energy range is mostly affected by the resolution of the camera objective.

Mechanism studies for relativistic attosecond electron bunches from laser-illuminated nanotargets

To find a way to control the electron-bunching process and the bunch-emitting directions when an ultraintense, linearly polarized laser pulse interacts with a nanoscale target, we explored the mechanisms for the periodical generation of relativistic attosecond electron bunches. By comparing the simulation results of three different target geometries, the results show that for nanofoil target, limiting the transverse target size to a small value and increasing the longitudinal size to a certain extent is an effective way to improve the total electron quantity in a single bunch. Then the subfemtosecond electronic dynamics when an ultrashort ultraintense laser grazing propagates along a nanofoil target was analyzed through particle-in-cell simulations and semiclassical analyses, which shows the detailed dynamics of the electron acceleration, radiation, and bunching process in the laser field. The analyses also show that the charge separation field produced by the ions plays a key role in the generation of electron bunches, which can be used to control the quantity of the corresponding attosecond radiation bunches by adjusting the length of the nanofoil target.

Attosecond dynamics of multi-channel single photon ionization

Photoionization of atoms and molecules is one of the fastest processes in nature. The understanding of the ultrafast temporal dynamics of this process often requires the characterization of the different angular momentum channels over a broad energy range. Using a two-photon interferometry technique based on extreme ultraviolet and infrared ultrashort pulses, we measure the phase and amplitude of the individual angular momentum channels as a function of kinetic energy in the outer-shell photoionization of neon. This allows us to unravel the influence of channel interference as well as the effect of the short-range, Coulomb and centrifugal potentials, on the dynamics of the photoionization process.

Understanding of photoionization dynamics, one of the fastest processes in nature, requires the characterization of all underlying ionization channels. Here the authors use an interferometry technique based on attosecond pulses to measure the phase and amplitude of the individual angular momentum channels in the photoionization of neon.

Anisotropic dynamics of two-photon ionization: An attosecond movie of photoemission

Imaging in real time the complete dynamics of a process as fundamental as photoemission has long been out of reach because of the difficulty of combining attosecond temporal resolution with fine spectral and angular resolutions. Here, we achieve full decoding of the intricate angle-dependent dynamics of a photoemission process in helium, spectrally and anisotropically structured by two-photon transitions through intermediate bound states. Using spectrally and angularly resolved attosecond electron interferometry, we characterize the complex-valued transition probability amplitude toward the photoelectron quantum state. This allows reconstructing in space, time, and energy the complete formation of the photoionized wave packet.

Light by design: emerging frontiers in ultrafast photon sciences and light–matter interactions

Photon sciences and technologies establish the building blocks for myriad scientific and engineering frontiers in life and energy sciences. Because of their overarching functionality, the developmental roadmap and opportunities underpinned by photonics are often semiotically mediated by the delineation of subject areas of application. In this perspective article, we map current and emerging linkages between three intersecting areas of research stewarded by advanced photonics technologies, namely light by design, outlined as (a) quantum and structured photonics, (b) light–matter interactions in accelerators and accelerator-based light sources, and (c) ultrafast sciences and quantum molecular dynamics. In each section, we will concentrate on state-of-the-art achievements and present prospective applications in life sciences, biochemistry, quantum optics and information sciences, and environmental and chemical engineering, all founded on a broad range of photon sources and methodologies. We hope that this interconnected mapping of challenges and opportunities seeds new concepts, theory, and experiments in the advancement of ultrafast photon sciences and light–matter interactions. Through this mapping, we hope to inspire a critically interdisciplinary approach to the science and applications of light by design.

Attosecond laser control of photoelectron angular distributions in XUV-induced ionization of H2

We investigate how attosecond XUV pump/IR probe schemes can be used to exert control on the ionization dynamics of the hydrogen molecule. The aim is to play with all available experimental parameters in the problem, namely the XUV pump-IR probe delay, the energy and emission direction of the produced photo-ions, as well as combinations of them, to uncover control strategies that can lead to preferential electron ejection directions. We do so by accurately solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, with inclusion of both electronic and nuclear motions, as well as the coupling between them. We show that both the IR pulse and the nuclear motion can be used to break the molecular inversion symmetry, thus leading to asymmetric molecular-frame photoelectron angular distributions. The preferential electron emission direction can thus be tuned by varying the pump-probe delay, by choosing specific ranges of proton kinetic energies, or both. We expect that similar control strategies could be used in more complex molecules containing light nuclei.

Fano's Propensity Rule in Angle-Resolved Attosecond Pump-Probe Photoionization

In a seminal article, Fano predicts that absorption of light occurs preferably with increase of angular momentum. We generalize Fano's propensity rule to laser-assisted photoionization, consisting of absorption of an extreme-ultraviolet photon followed by absorption or emission of an infrared photon. The predicted asymmetry between absorption and emission leads to incomplete quantum interference in attosecond photoelectron interferometry. It explains both the angular dependence of the photoionization time delays and the delay dependence of the photoelectron angular distributions. Our theory is verified by experimental results in Ar in the 20-40 eV range.

Time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy of IR-driven electron dynamics in a charge transfer model system

If the adiabatic approximation is valid, electrons smoothly adapt to molecular geometry changes. In contrast, as a characteristic of diabatic dynamics, the electron density does not follow the nuclear motion. Recently, we have shown that the asymmetry in time-resolved photoelectron spectra serves as a tool to distinguish between these dynamics [Falge et al., J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2012, 3, 2617]. Here, we investigate the influence of an additional, moderately intense infrared (IR) laser field, as often applied in attosecond time-resolved experiments, on such asymmetries. This is done using a simple model for coupled electronic-nuclear motion. We calculate time-resolved photoelectron spectra and their asymmetries and demonstrate that the spectra directly map the bound electron-nuclear dynamics. From the asymmetries, we can trace the IR field-induced population transfer and both the field-driven and intrinsic (non-)adiabatic dynamics. This holds true when considering superposition states accompanied by electronic coherences. The latter are observable in the asymmetries for sufficiently short XUV pulses to coherently probe the coupled states. It is thus documented that the asymmetry is a measure for phases in bound electron wave packets and non-adiabatic dynamics.

Multi-purpose two- and three-dimensional momentum imaging of charged particles for attosecond experiments at 1 kHz repetition rate

We report on the versatile design and operation of a two-sided spectrometer for the imaging of charged-particle momenta in two dimensions (2D) and three dimensions (3D). The benefits of 3D detection are to discern particles of different mass and to study correlations between fragments from multi-ionization processes, while 2D detectors are more efficient for single-ionization applications. Combining these detector types in one instrument allows us to detect positive and negative particles simultaneously and to reduce acquisition times by using the 2D detector at a higher ionization rate when the third dimension is not required. The combined access to electronic and nuclear dynamics available when both sides are used together is important for studying photoreactions in samples of increasing complexity. The possibilities and limitations of 3D momentum imaging of electrons or ions in the same spectrometer geometry are investigated analytically and three different modes of operation demonstrated experimentally, with infrared or extreme ultraviolet light and an atomic/molecular beam.

Attosecond pulse walk-off in high-order harmonic generation

We study the influence of the generation conditions on the group delay of attosecond pulses in high-order harmonic generation in gases. The group delay relative to the fundamental field is found to decrease with increasing gas pressure in the generation cell, reflecting a temporal walk-off due to the dispersive properties of the nonlinear medium. This effect is well reproduced using an on-axis phase-matching model of high-order harmonic generation in an absorbing gas.

Carrier-envelope phase effects of a single attosecond pulse in two-color photoionization

The attosecond streak camera method is usually implemented to characterize the temporal phase and amplitude of isolated attosecond pulses produced by high-order harmonic generation. This approach, however, does not provide any information about the carrier-envelope phase of the attosecond pulses. We demonstrate that the photoelectron spectra generated by an attosecond waveform and an intense synchronized infrared field are sensitive to the electric field of the attosecond pulse. The dependence on the carrier-envelope phase of the attosecond pulse is understood in terms of the coherent superposition of two photoelectron wave packets. This effect suggests an experimentally feasible method for complete reconstruction of attosecond waveforms.

Synchronizing terahertz wave generation with attosecond bursts

We perform a joint measurement of terahertz waves and high-harmonics generated from argon atoms driven by a fundamental laser pulse and its second harmonic. By correlating their dependence on the phase delay between the two pulses, we determine the generation of THz waves in tens of attoseconds precision. Compared with simulations and models, we find that the laser-assisted soft collision of the electron wave packet with the atomic core plays a key role. It is demonstrated that the rescattering process, being indispensable in high-harmonic generation processes, dominates THz wave generation as well in a more elaborate way. The new finding might be helpful for the full characterization of the rescattering dynamics.

Photoelectron angular distributions and cross section ratios of two-color two-photon above threshold ionization of argon

Anisotropy parameters and cross section ratios of two-color two-photon above threshold ionization sidebands from argon are measured using photoelectron velocity map imaging with the selected 13th or 15th high-order harmonics in a perturbative 800 nm dressing field. A new data analysis technique determines accurate anisotropy parameters of the photoelectron angular distributions for each sideband by subtracting a sequence of percentages of the single-photon ionization background from the above threshold ionization signal to correct for the angular averaging of overlapping photoelectron energies. The results provide a fundamental test of theoretical predictions based on second-order perturbation theory with a one-electron model and the soft-photon approximation and show agreement with theory for the cross section ratios. However, discrepancies between the theoretically predicted and experimentally determined photoelectron angular distributions demonstrate the need for a more comprehensive theoretical description of two-color two-photon above threshold ionization.

Destructive interference during high harmonic generation in mixed gases

We report on the first experimental evidence of the destructive and constructive interference of high harmonics generated in a mixed gas of He and Ne, which facilitates the coherent control of high harmonic generation. Theoretically, we develop an analytical model of high harmonic generation in mixed gases and succeed in reproducing the experimental results and deriving the optimization conditions for the process. The observed interference modulation is attributed to the difference between the phases of the intrinsically chirped harmonic pulses from He and Ne, which leads to a novel method for broadband measurement of the harmonic phases and for observing the underlying attosecond electron dynamics.

An electronic time scale in chemistry

Ultrafast, subfemtosecond charge migration in small peptides is discussed on the basis of computational studies and compared with the selective bond dissociation after ionization as observed by Schlag and Weinkauf. The reported relaxation could be probed in real time if the removal of an electron could be achieved on the attosecond time scale. Then the mean field seen by an electron would be changing rapidly enough to initiate the migration. Tyrosine-terminated tetrapeptides have a particularly fast charge migration where in <1 fs the charge arrives at the other end. A femtosecond pulse can be used to observe the somewhat slower relaxation induced by correlation between electrons of different spins. A slower relaxation also is indicated when removing a deeper-lying valence electron. When a chromophoric amino acid is at one end of the peptide, the charge can migrate all along the peptide backbone up to the N end, but site-selective ionization is probably easier to detect for tryptophan than for tyrosine.

Conclusive evidence of an attosecond pulse train observed with the mode-resolved autocorrelation technique

We report on the direct observation of an attosecond pulse train with a mode-resolved autocorrelation technique. The chirp among the three harmonic fields is specified by analyzing two-photon above-threshold ionization spectra of electrons, resulting in a pulse duration that should be shorter than 450 as, which is, to our knowledge, the first determination of the chirp in the attosecond pulse train with an autocorrelation technique. These results will open the way to full characterization of an attosecond pulse train with its envelope.

Attosecond electron wave packet dynamics in strong laser fields

We use a train of sub-200 attosecond extreme ultraviolet (XUV) pulses with energies just above the ionization threshold in argon to create a train of temporally localized electron wave packets. We study the energy transfer from a strong infrared (IR) laser field to the ionized electrons as a function of the delay between the XUV and IR fields. When the wave packets are born at the zero crossings of the IR field, a significant amount of energy (approximately 20 eV) is transferred from the field to the electrons. This results in dramatically enhanced above-threshold ionization in conditions where the IR field alone does not induce any significant ionization. Because both the energy and duration of the wave packets can be varied independently of the IR laser, they are valuable tools for studying and controlling strong-field processes.

Attosecond electromagnetic pulse generation due to the interaction of a relativistic soliton with a breaking-wake plasma wave

During the interaction of a low-frequency relativistic soliton with the electron density modulations of a wake plasma wave, part of the electromagnetic energy of the soliton is reflected in the form of an extremely short and ultraintense electromagnetic pulse. We calculate the spectra of the reflected and of the transmitted electromagnetic pulses analytically. The reflected wave has the form of a single cycle attosecond pulse.

Amplitude and phase control of attosecond light pulses

We report the generation, compression, and delivery on target of ultrashort extreme-ultraviolet light pulses using external amplitude and phase control. Broadband harmonic radiation is first generated by focusing an infrared laser with a carefully chosen intensity into a gas cell containing argon atoms. The emitted light then goes through a hard aperture and a thin aluminum filter that selects a 30-eV bandwidth around a 30-eV photon energy and synchronizes all of the components, thereby enabling the formation of a train of almost Fourier-transform-limited single-cycle 170 attosecond pulses. Our experiment demonstrates a practical method for synthesizing and controlling attosecond waveforms.

Generation of a sub-20-fs single optical pulse by four-wave Raman mixing using two Raman cells filled with molecular hydrogen

To attempt to expand the spectral domain for pulse shortening, we generated several emission lines by stimulated Raman scattering and subsequent four-wave Raman mixing. The efficiency of generation of the Raman emission was improved by passing the beam through two Raman cells that were connected in series. The group-velocity dispersion induced by a Raman cell window and hydrogen was compensated for by means of a pair of chirped mirrors for pulse compression. By a phase lock of the emission lines in the process of four-wave Raman mixing, the pulse width was reduced from 114 to 17 fs in the second Raman cell.

Control of atomic ionization by two-color few-cycle pulses

We have studied the ionization of Rydberg atoms by few-cycle radio-frequency pulses and used two-color fields to control the ionization dynamics. We show that the number of times that electrons are emitted during a pulse can be limited and that the duration of the electron emission can be shortened. These results, once they are transposed to the optical domain, may inspire new strategies for the production of single attosecond pulses.