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Handa AK, Fatima T, Mattoo AK. Polyamines: Bio-Molecules with Diverse Functions in Plant and Human Health and Disease. Front Chem 2018; 6:10. [PMID: 29468148 PMCID: PMC5807879 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biogenic amines-polyamines (PAs), particularly putrescine, spermidine and spermine are ubiquitous in all living cells. Their indispensable roles in many biochemical and physiological processes are becoming commonly known, including promoters of plant life and differential roles in human health and disease. PAs positively impact cellular functions in plants-exemplified by increasing longevity, reviving physiological memory, enhancing carbon and nitrogen resource allocation/signaling, as well as in plant development and responses to extreme environments. Thus, one or more PAs are commonly found in genomic and metabolomics studies using plants, particulary during different abiotic stresses. In humans, a general decline in PA levels with aging occurs parallel with some human health disorders. Also, high PA dose is detrimental to patients suffering from cancer, aging, innate immunity and cognitive impairment during Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. A dichotomy exists in that while PAs may increase longevity and reduce some age-associated cardiovascular diseases, in disease conditions involving higher cellular proliferation, their intake has negative consequences. Thus, it is essential that PA levels be rigorously quantified in edible plant sources as well as in dietary meats. Such a database can be a guide for medical experts in order to recommend which foods/meats a patient may consume and which ones to avoid. Accordingly, designing both high and low polyamine diets for human consumption are in vogue, particularly in medical conditions where PA intake may be detrimental, for instance, cancer patients. In this review, literature data has been collated for the levels of the three main PAs, putrescine, spermidine and spermine, in different edible sources-vegetables, fruits, cereals, nuts, meat, sea food, cheese, milk, and eggs. Based on our analysis of vast literature, the effects of PAs in human/animal health fall into two broad, Yang and Yin, categories: beneficial for the physiological processes in healthy cells and detrimental under pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avtar K. Handa
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Tahira Fatima
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Autar K. Mattoo
- Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory, Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service (ARS-USDA), Beltsville, MD, United States
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Hakeem KR, Sabir M, Ozturk M, Akhtar MS, Ibrahim FH. Nitrate and Nitrogen Oxides: Sources, Health Effects and Their Remediation. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2017; 242:183-217. [PMID: 27734212 DOI: 10.1007/398_2016_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Increased use of nitrogenous (N) fertilizers in agriculture has significantly altered the global N-cycle because they release nitrogenous gases of environmental concerns. The emission of nitrous oxide (N2O) contributes to the global greenhouse gas accumulation and the stratospheric ozone depletion. In addition, it causes nitrate leaching problem deteriorating ground water quality. The nitrate toxicity has been reported in a number of studies showing the health hazards like methemoglobinemia in infants and is a potent cause of cancer. Despite these evident negative environmental as well as health impacts, consumption of N fertilizer cannot be reduced in view of the food security for the teeming growing world population. Various agronomic and genetic modifications have been practiced to tackle this problem. Some agronomic techniques adopted include split application of N, use of slow-release fertilizers, nitrification inhibitors and encouraging the use of organic manure over chemical fertilizers. As a matter of fact, the use of chemical means to remediate nitrate from the environment is very difficult and costly. Particularly, removal of nitrate from water is difficult task because it is chemically non-reactive in dilute aqueous solutions. Hence, the use of biological means for nitrate remediation offers a promising strategy to minimize the ill effects of nitrates and nitrites. One of the important goals to reduce N-fertilizer application can be effectively achieved by choosing N-efficient genotypes. This will ensure the optimum uptake of applied N in a balanced manner and exploring the molecular mechanisms for their uptake as well as metabolism in assimilatory pathways. The objectives of this paper are to evaluate the interrelations which exist in the terrestrial ecosystems between the plant type and characteristics of nutrient uptake and analyze the global consumption and demand for fertilizer nitrogen in relation to cereal production, evaluate the various methods used to determine nitrogen use efficincy (NUE), determine NUE for the major cereals grown across large agroclimatic regions, determine the key factors that control NUE, and finally analyze various strategies available to improve the use efficiency of fertilizer nitrogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalid Rehman Hakeem
- Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, UPM 43400, Malaysia.
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Muhammad Sabir
- Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Munir Ozturk
- Botany Department & Centre for Environmental Studies, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Mohd Sayeed Akhtar
- Department of Botany, Gandhi Faiz-E-Aam College, Shahjahanpur, 242001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Faridah Hanum Ibrahim
- Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, UPM 43400, Malaysia
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Chi JC, Roeper J, Schwarz G, Fischer-Schrader K. Dual binding of 14-3-3 protein regulates Arabidopsis nitrate reductase activity. J Biol Inorg Chem 2015; 20:277-86. [PMID: 25578809 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-014-1232-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
14-3-3 proteins represent a family of ubiquitous eukaryotic proteins involved in numerous signal transduction processes and metabolic pathways. One important 14-3-3 target in higher plants is nitrate reductase (NR), whose activity is regulated by different physiological conditions. Intra-molecular electron transfer in NR is inhibited following 14-3-3 binding to a conserved phospho-serine motif located in hinge 1, a surface exposed loop between the catalytic molybdenum and central heme domain. Here we describe a novel 14-3-3 binding site within the NR N-terminus, an acidic motif conserved in NRs of higher plants, which significantly contributes to 14-3-3-mediated inhibition of NR. Deletion or mutation of the N-terminal acidic motif resulted in a significant loss of 14-3-3 mediated inhibition of Ser534 phosphorylated NR-Mo-heme (residues 1-625), a previously established model of NR regulation. Co-sedimentation and crosslinking studies with NR peptides comprising each of the two binding motifs demonstrated direct binding of either peptide to 14-3-3. Surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy disclosed high-affinity binding of 14-3-3ω to the well-known phospho-hinge site and low-affinity binding to the N-terminal acidic motif. A binding groove-deficient 14-3-3ω variant retained interaction to the acidic motif, but lost binding to the phospho-hinge motif. To our knowledge, NR is the first enzyme that harbors two independent 14-3-3 binding sites with different affinities, which both need to be occupied by 14-3-3ω to confer full inhibition of NR activity under physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jen-Chih Chi
- Department of Chemistry, Institute for Biochemistry, University of Cologne, 50674, Cologne, Germany
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4
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Rosales EP, Iannone MF, Groppa MD, Benavides MP. Polyamines modulate nitrate reductase activity in wheat leaves: involvement of nitric oxide. Amino Acids 2011; 42:857-65. [PMID: 21814796 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1001-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
In the present work, the effect of polyamines (PAs) on nitrate reductase (NR) activity was studied in wheat leaves exposed to exogenously added PAs while assessing the nitric oxide (NO) involvement in the regulation of the enzyme activity. A biphasic response was observed along the time of treatment using 0.1 mM of putrescine (Put), spermidine (Spd) or spermine (Spm). At 3 h, Spd and Spm significantly reduced NR activity by 29 or 35%, respectively, whereas at 6 h, the activity of the enzyme decreased by an average of 25%. At 21 h, Put increased NR activity by 63%, while Spd and Spm elevated the enzyme activity by 114%. NR activity, that was reduced by 0.1 mM Spm at 3 and 6 h, returned almost to control values when c-PTIO (an NO scavenger) was used, confirming that NO was involved in the inhibition of NR activity. Nitric oxide was also mediating the PA-increase of the enzyme activity at longer incubation times, evidenced when the raise in NR activity produced by 0.1 mM Spm at the longest incubation time returned to the value of the control in the presence of cPTIO. Neither the protein expression nor the nitrate content were modified by PAs treatments. The involvement of PAs and NO in the regulation of NR activity is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana Paola Rosales
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Heidari B, Matre P, Nemie-Feyissa D, Meyer C, Rognli OA, Møller SG, Lillo C. Protein phosphatase 2A B55 and A regulatory subunits interact with nitrate reductase and are essential for nitrate reductase activation. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 156:165-72. [PMID: 21436382 PMCID: PMC3091043 DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.172734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Posttranslational activation of nitrate reductase (NR) in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and other higher plants is mediated by dephosphorylation at a specific Ser residue in the hinge between the molybdenum cofactor and heme-binding domains. The activation of NR in green leaves takes place after dark/light shifts, and is dependent on photosynthesis. Previous studies using various inhibitors pointed to protein phosphatases sensitive to okadaic acid, including protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), as candidates for activation of NR. PP2As are heterotrimeric enzymes consisting of a catalytic (C), structural (A), and regulatory (B) subunit. In Arabidopsis there are five, three, and 18 of these subunits, respectively. By using inducible artificial microRNA to simultaneously knock down the three structural subunits we show that PP2A is necessary for NR activation. The structural subunits revealed overlapping functions in the activation process of NR. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation was used to identify PP2A regulatory subunits interacting with NR, and the two B55 subunits were positive. Interactions of NR and B55 were further confirmed by the yeast two-hybrid assay. In Arabidopsis the B55 group consists of the close homologs B55α and B55β. Interestingly, the homozygous double mutant (b55α × b55β) appeared to be lethal, which shows that the B55 group has essential functions that cannot be replaced by other regulatory subunits. Mutants homozygous for mutation in Bβ and heterozygous for mutation in Bα revealed a slower activation rate for NR than wild-type plants, pointing to these subunits as part of a PP2A complex responsible for NR dephosphorylation.
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6
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Lambeck I, Chi JC, Krizowski S, Mueller S, Mehlmer N, Teige M, Fischer K, Schwarz G. Kinetic analysis of 14-3-3-inhibited Arabidopsis thaliana nitrate reductase. Biochemistry 2010; 49:8177-86. [PMID: 20690630 DOI: 10.1021/bi1003487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Eukaryotic assimilatory nitrate reductase (NR) is a dimeric multidomain molybdo-heme-flavo protein that catalyzes the first and rate-limiting step in the nitrate assimilation of plants, algae, and fungi. Nitrate reduction takes place at the N-terminal molybdenum cofactor-containing domain. Reducing equivalents are derived from NADH, which reduce the C-terminal FAD domain followed by single-electron transfer steps via the middle heme domain to the molybdenum center. In plants, nitrate reduction is post-translationally inhibited by phosphorylation and subsequent binding of 14-3-3 protein to a conserved phosphoserine located in the surface-exposed hinge between the catalytic and heme domain. Here we investigated Arabidopsis thaliana NR activity upon phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding by using a fully defined in vitro system with purified proteins. We demonstrate that among different calcium-dependent protein kinases (CPKs), CPK-17 efficiently phosphorylates Ser534 in NR. Out of eight purified Arabidopsis 14-3-3 proteins, isoforms ω, κ, and λ exhibited the strongest inhibition of NR. The kinetic parameters of noninhibited, phosphorylated NR (pNR) and pNR in a complex with 14-3-3 were investigated. An 18-fold reduction in k(cat) and a decrease in the apparent K(M)(nitrate) (from 280 to 141 μM) were observed upon binding of 14-3-3 to pNR, suggesting a noncompetitive inhibition with a preferential binding to the substrate-bound state of the enzyme. Recording partial activities of NR demonstrated that the transfer of electrons to the heme is not affected by 14-3-3 binding. The Ser534Ala variant of NR was not inhibited by 14-3-3 proteins. We propose that 14-3-3 binding to Ser534 blocks the transfer of electrons from heme to nitrate by arresting the domain movement via hinge 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Lambeck
- Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cologne, 50674 Cologne, Germany
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Shi K, Ding XT, Dong DK, Zhou YH, Yu JQ. Putrescine enhancement of tolerance to root-zone hypoxia in Cucumis sativus: a role for increased nitrate reduction. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2008; 35:337-345. [PMID: 32688789 DOI: 10.1071/fp08029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/22/2008] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants were subjected to hypoxic stress with or without a pretreatment of putrescine (Put) to investigate whether nitrate reduction is involved in the enhancement effects of Put on tolerance to root-zone hypoxia. Both hypoxic stress and exogenous Put application significantly increased the contents of endogenous Put, spermidine and spermine. Plants grown under hypoxic conditions exhibited reductions in plant growth rate, NAD+/NADH ratio, ATP concentration, and consequent lowered cell viability in roots. The detrimental effects, however, were significantly alleviated by the addition of Put into the nutrient solution 24 h before the administration of hypoxia. Transcript levels of NR (nitrate reductase) and its cofactor binding domain genes FAD (FAD binding) and CYP51G1 (Heme binding), the activity of nitrate reductase (NR, EC 1.6.6.1) and the nitrate reduction process were each greatly enhanced by Put application, particularly in roots exposed to hypoxia. Lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.27) activity was independent of aeration condition and Put application, whereas alcohol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.1) activity was significantly increased after exposure to hypoxia, but did not increase after Put application. Put failed to alleviate the hypoxia injury of root electrolyte leakage when NR was inhibited by tungstate in the nutrient solution. These results suggest that Put enhances tolerance to hypoxia by increasing the transcript levels of NR and its cofactor binding domain genes, thereby stimulating the activities of NR and nitrate reduction to maintain the redox and energy status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Shi
- Department of Horticulture, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Kaixuan Road 268, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Xiao-Tao Ding
- Department of Horticulture, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Kaixuan Road 268, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - De-Kun Dong
- The Institute of Crop and Nuclear Technology Utilisation, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Yan-Hong Zhou
- Department of Horticulture, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Kaixuan Road 268, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Jing Quan Yu
- Department of Horticulture, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Kaixuan Road 268, Hangzhou 310029, China
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8
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Garufi A, Visconti S, Camoni L, Aducci P. Polyamines as physiological regulators of 14-3-3 interaction with the plant plasma membrane H+-ATPase. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 48:434-40. [PMID: 17251201 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcm010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Polyamines are abundant polycationic compounds involved in many plant physiological processes such as cell division, dormancy breaking, plant morphogenesis and response to environmental stresses. In this study, we investigated the possible role of these polycations in modulating the association of 14-3-3 proteins with the H(+)-ATPase. In vivo experiments demonstrate that, among the different polyamines, spermine brings about 2-fold stimulation of the H(+)-ATPase activity and this effect is due to an increase in 14-3-3 levels associated with the enzyme. In vivo administration of polyamine synthesis inhibitors causes a small but statistically significant decrease of the H(+)-ATPase phosphohydrolytic activity, demonstrating a physiological role for the polyamines in regulating the enzyme activity. Spermine stimulates the activity of the H(+)-ATPase AHA1 expressed in yeast, in the presence of exogenous 14-3-3 proteins, with a calculated S(50) of 70 microM. Moreover, spermine enhances the in vitro interaction of 14-3-3 proteins with the H(+)-ATPase and notably induces 14-3-3 association with the unphosphorylated C-terminal domain of the proton pump. Comparison of spermine with Mg(2+), necessary for binding of 14-3-3 proteins to different target proteins, shows that the polyamine effect is stronger than and additive to that of the divalent cation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Garufi
- Department of Biology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, via della Ricerca Scientifica, I-00133 Rome, Italy
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9
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Shen W, Huber SC. Polycations globally enhance binding of 14-3-3omega to target proteins in spinach leaves. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 47:764-71. [PMID: 16621845 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcj050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The binding of 14-3-3omega to phosphorylated nitrate reductase (pNR) is stimulated by cations such as Mg(2+) or spermine, and decreased by 5'-AMP. In order to determine whether binding to other cellular proteins is affected similarly, far-Western overlays of extracts prepared from light- or dark-treated spinach (Spinacia oleracea) leaves were performed using digoxigenin (DIG)-labeled Arabidopsis 14-3-3omega. When separated by SDS-PAGE, approximately 25 proteins of >35 kDa could be resolved that interacted with DIG-labeled 14-3-3omega in the absence of added cations. The presence of 5 mM Mg(2+) or 0.5 mM spermine enhanced binding to most of the target proteins to a maximum of about a doubling of the observed binding. In most cases, the binding was dependent on phosphorylation of the target protein, whereas that was not necessarily the case for binding to target proteins that were unaffected by polycations. The extent of stimulation varied among the target proteins, but there was no indication that the nature of the cation activator (e.g. Mg(2+) vs. spermine(4+)) altered the specificity for target proteins. In addition, binding of DIG-labeled 14-3-3omega to some, but not all, target proteins was reduced by 5 mM 5'-AMP. Interestingly, light/dark treatment of spinach leaves affected the subsequent binding of DIG-labeled 14-3-3omega in the overlay assay to only a few of the target proteins, one of which was identified as NADH:nitrate reductase. Overall, the results suggest that the binding of 14-3-3s to targets in addition to pNR may also be regulated by polycations and 5'-AMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Shen
- USDA-ARS, and Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7631, USA
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10
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Good AG, Shrawat AK, Muench DG. Can less yield more? Is reducing nutrient input into the environment compatible with maintaining crop production? TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2004; 9:597-605. [PMID: 15564127 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2004.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 333] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant scientists have long recognized the need to develop crops that absorb and use nutrients more efficiently. Two approaches have been used to increase nutrient use efficiency (NUE) in crop plants. The first involves both traditional breeding and marker-assisted selection in an attempt to identify the genes involved. The second uses novel gene constructs designed to improve specific aspects of NUE. Here, we discuss some recent developments in the genetic manipulation of NUE in crop plants and argue that an improved understanding of the transition between nitrogen assimilation and nitrogen recycling will be important in applying this technology to increasing crop yields. Moreover, we emphasize the need to combine genetic and transgenic approaches to make significant improvements in NUE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen G Good
- Department of Biological Sciences, G-425, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E9.
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Lillo C, Meyer C, Lea US, Provan F, Oltedal S. Mechanism and importance of post-translational regulation of nitrate reductase. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2004; 55:1275-82. [PMID: 15107452 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erh132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In higher plants, nitrate reductase (NR) is inactivated by the phosphorylation of a conserved Ser residue and binding of 14-3-3 proteins in the presence of divalent cations or polyamines. A transgenic Nicotiana plumbaginifolia line (S521) has been constructed where the regulatory, conserved Ser 521 of tobacco NR (corresponding to Ser 534 in Arabidopsis) was mutated into Asp. This mutation resulted in the complete abolition of activation/inactivation in response to light/dark transitions or other treatments known to regulate the activation state of NR. Analysis of the transgenic plants showed that, under certain conditions, when whole plants or cut tissues are exposed to high nitrate supply, post-translational regulation is necessary to avoid nitrite accumulation. Abolition of the post-translational regulation of NR also results in an increased flux of nitric oxide from the leaves and roots. In view of the results obtained from examining the different transgenic N. plumbaginifolia lines, compartmentation of nitrate into an active metabolic pool and a large storage pool appears to be an important factor for regulating nitrate reduction. The complex regulation of nitrate reduction is likely to have evolved not only to optimize nitrogen assimilation, but also to prevent and control the formation of toxic, and possibly regulatory, products of NR activities. Phos phorylation of NR has previously been found to influence the degradation of NR in spinach leaves and Arabidopsis cell cultures. However, experiments with whole plants of N. plumbaginifolia, Arabidopsis, or squash are in favour of NR degradation being the same in light and darkness and independent of phosphorylation at the regulatory Ser.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrine Lillo
- Stavanger University College, School of Technology and Science, Box 8002 Ullandhaug, 4068 Stavanger, Norway.
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Lea US, Ten Hoopen F, Provan F, Kaiser WM, Meyer C, Lillo C. Mutation of the regulatory phosphorylation site of tobacco nitrate reductase results in high nitrite excretion and NO emission from leaf and root tissue. PLANTA 2004; 219:59-65. [PMID: 14767769 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-004-1209-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2003] [Accepted: 12/17/2003] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In wild-type Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. and other higher plants, nitrate reductase (NR) is regulated at the post-translational level and is rapidly inactivated in response to, for example, a light-to-dark transition. This inactivation is caused by phosphorylation of a conserved regulatory serine residue, Ser 521 in tobacco, and interaction with divalent cations or polyamines, and 14-3-3 proteins. The physiological importance of the post-translational NR modulation is presently under investigation using a transgenic N. plumbaginifolia line. This line expresses a mutated tobacco NR where Ser 521 has been changed into aspartic acid (Asp) by site-directed mutagenesis, resulting in a permanently active NR enzyme. When cut leaves or roots of this line (S(521)) were placed in darkness in a buffer containing 50 mM KNO(3), nitrite was excreted from the tissue at rates of 0.08-0.2 micromol (g FW)(-1) h(-1) for at least 5 h. For the control transgenic plant (C1), which had the regulatory serine of NR intact, nitrite excretion was low and halted completely after 1-3 h. Without nitrate in the buffer in which the tissue was immersed, nitrite excretion was also low for S(521), although 20-40 micromol (g FW)(-1) nitrate was present inside the tissue. Apparently, stored nitrate was not readily available for reduction in darkness. Leaf tissue and root segments of S(521) also emitted much more nitric oxide (NO) than the control. Importantly, NO emission from leaf tissue of S(521) was higher in the dark than in the light, opposite to what was usually observed when post-translational NR modulation was operating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Unni S Lea
- School of Technology and Science, Stavanger University College, Box 8002 Ullandhaug, 4068 Stavanger, Norway
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Bustos DM, Iglesias AA. Phosphorylated non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from heterotrophic cells of wheat interacts with 14-3-3 proteins. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2003; 133:2081-8. [PMID: 14681537 PMCID: PMC300759 DOI: 10.1104/pp.103.030981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2003] [Revised: 08/27/2003] [Accepted: 09/12/2003] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenases catalyze key steps in energy and reducing power partitioning in cells of higher plants. Phosphorylated non-phosphorylating glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPN) present in heterotrophic cells of wheat (Triticum aestivum) was activated up to 3-fold by MgCl2. The effect was not observed with the non-phosphorylated enzyme found in leaves. The divalent cation also affected the response of the enzyme from endosperm and shoots to adenine nucleotides and inorganic pyrophosphate. Gel filtration chromatography, co-immunoprecipitation followed by immunostaining, and the use of a phosphopeptide containing a canonical binding motif showed that MgCl2 actually disrupted the interaction between GAPN and a 14-3-3 regulatory protein. After interaction with 14-3-3, phosphorylated GAPN exhibits a 3-fold lower Vmax and higher sensitivity to inhibition by ATP and pyrophosphate. Results suggest that GAPN is a target for regulation by phosphorylation, levels of divalent cations, and 14-3-3 proteins. The regulatory mechanism could be critical to maintain levels of energy and reductants in the cytoplasm of heterotrophic plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego M Bustos
- Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús, Camino Circunvalación Laguna km 6, CC 164, B7130IWA Chascomús, Argentina
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Lillo C, Lea US, Leydecker MT, Meyer C. Mutation of the regulatory phosphorylation site of tobacco nitrate reductase results in constitutive activation of the enzyme in vivo and nitrite accumulation. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2003; 35:566-73. [PMID: 12940950 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.2003.01828.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
In wild-type Nicotiana plumbaginifolia and other higher plants, nitrate reductase (NR) is rapidly inactivated/activated in response to dark/light transitions. Inactivation of NR is believed to be caused by phosphorylation at a special conserved regulatory Ser residue, Ser 521, and interactions with divalent cations and inhibitory 14-3-3 proteins. A transgenic N. plumbaginifolia line (S(521)) was constructed where the Ser 521 had been changed by site-directed mutagenesis into Asp. This mutation resulted in complete abolishment of inactivation in response to light/dark transitions or other treatments known to inactivate NR. During prolonged darkness, NR in wild-type plants is in the inactivated form, whereas NR in the S(521) line is always in the active form. Differences in degradation rate between NR from S(521) and lines with non-mutated NR were not found. Kinetic constants like Km values for NADH and NO3(-) were not changed, but a slightly different pH profile was observed for mutated NR as opposed to non-mutated NR. Under optimal growth conditions, the phenotype of the S(521) plants was not different from the wild type (WT). However, when plants were irrigated with high nitrate concentration, 150 mM, the transgenic plants accumulated nitrite in darkness, and young leaves showed chlorosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrine Lillo
- Stavanger University College, School of Technology and Science, Box 8002 Ullandhaug, 4068 Stavanger, Norway.
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García-Mata C, Lamattina L. Abscisic acid, nitric oxide and stomatal closure - is nitrate reductase one of the missing links? TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2003; 8:20-6. [PMID: 12523996 DOI: 10.1016/s1360-1385(02)00009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Once plant endogenous nitric oxide (NO) production had been proved, NO research was directed toward both the source and the targets of this extremely bioactive molecule. As in mammals, plant NO was first thought to be generated mainly by a NO synthase-like enzymatic activity. However, nitrate reductase (NR)-dependent NO production is now receiving much of the attention because of the ubiquity of this enzyme in higher plant tissues and the precise regulation of its NO-production activity. NO has been reported to be a signal in many and diverse physiological processes, such as growth and biotic and abiotic stresses. Recently, NO has been shown to affect stomatal closure and interact with abscisic acid signaling pathways. We propose NR as a putative component in the signaling cascade of ABA-induced stomatal closure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos García-Mata
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, CC 1245, Argentina
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Nakamura K, Shiraishi N, Hosoo S, Sueyoshi K, Sugimoto T, Nanmori T, Nakagawa H, Oji Y. A protein kinase activated by darkness phosphorylates nitrate reductase in Komatsuna (Brassica campestris) leaves. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2002; 115:496-503. [PMID: 12121455 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-3054.2002.1150403.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Although it has been shown that leaf nitrate reductase (NR: EC 1.6.6.1) is phosphorylated by subjecting plants to darkness, there is no evidence for the existence of dark-activated or dark-induced NR kinase. This study was undertaken to investigate the occurrence of a protein kinase phosphorylating NR in response to dark treatments. Immediately after transferring Komatsuna (Brassica campestris L.) plants to darkness, we observed rapid increases in the phosphorylating activity of the synthetic peptide, which is designed for the amino acid sequence surrounding the regulatory serine residue of the hinge 1 region of Komatsuna NR, in crude extracts from leaves. The activity reached a maximum after 10 min of darkness. Inactivation states of NR estimated from relative activities with or without Mg2+ were correlated to activities of the putative dark-activated protein kinase. Using the synthetic peptide as a substrate, we purified a protein kinase from dark-treated leaves by means of successive chromatographies on Q-Sepharose, Blue Sepharose, FPLC Q-Sepharose, and ATP-gamma-Sepharose columns. The purified kinase had an apparent molecular mass of 150 kDa with a catalytic subunit of 55 kDa, and it was Ca2+-independent. The purified kinase phosphorylated a recombinant cytochrome c reductase protein, a partial protein of NR, and holo NR, and inactivated NR in the presence of both 14-3-3 protein and Mg2+. The kinase also phosphorylated synthetic peptide substrates designed for sucrose phosphate synthase and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A reductase. Among inhibitors tested, only K252a, a potent and specific serine/threonine kinase inhibitor, completely inhibited the activity of the dark-activated kinase. The activity of the purified kinase was also specifically inhibited by K252a. Taken together with these findings, results obtained suggest that the putative dark-activated protein kinase may be the purified kinase itself, and may be responsible for in vivo phosphorylation of NR and its inactivation during darkness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kousuke Nakamura
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan Department of Bioproduction Science, Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University, Matsudo 271-0092, Japan 1These authors contributed equally this work
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Djennane S, Chauvin JE, Quilleré I, Meyer C, Chupeau Y. Introduction and expression of a deregulated tobacco nitrate reductase gene in potato lead to highly reduced nitrate levels in transgenic tubers. Transgenic Res 2002; 11:175-84. [PMID: 12054351 DOI: 10.1023/a:1015299711171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Twenty transformed Solanum tuberosum plants issued from five different varieties and carrying a chimeric tobacco nitrate reductase gene (a truncated tobacco Nia2 coding sequence fused to the CaMV 35S promoter) were cultivated in field conditions at INRA Ploudaniel in 1999 and 2000. In 60% of the transgenic plants, the presence of the tobacco Nia2 transcript was detected by RT-PCR. These clones exhibited a drastic decrease in the nitrate content in tubers. Indeed the nitrate content decreased by about 95% in the tubers of transformed plants compared to nontransformed potato plants from the same variety. This decrease was correlated with a modified regulation of NR expression as revealed by a higher chlorate sensitivity of these transgenic lines. Two methods of nitrate content determination in tubers were also compared and were found to give similar results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samia Djennane
- Station d'Amélioration de la Pomme de terre et des Plantes à Bulbes, INRA, Ploudaniel, France
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Kaiser WM, Weiner H, Kandlbinder A, Tsai CB, Rockel P, Sonoda M, Planchet E. Modulation of nitrate reductase: some new insights, an unusual case and a potentially important side reaction. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2002; 53:875-882. [PMID: 11912230 DOI: 10.1093/jexbot/53.370.875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of the post-translational modulation of nitrate reductase activity (NR, EC 1.6.6.1) is briefly summarized, and it is shown that by this mechanism nitric oxide production through NR is also rapidly modulated. New and partly unexpected details on the modulation mechanism have been obtained by using immunological techniques. The phosphorylation state of NR has been assessed with peptide antibodies raised against the serine phosphorylation motive of spinach NR. By co-immunoprecipitation experiments, 14-3-3 binding to phospho-NR and the function of Mg(2+) in that process has been elucidated. Conflicting data on the role of NR phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding in controlling NR proteolysis are discussed. A possible role of other NR inactivating proteins is also briefly considered and the regulation of NR of Ricinus communis is described as an interesting special case that differs from the 'normal' mechanism in several important aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner M Kaiser
- Julius-von-Sachs-Institut für Biowissenschaften, Julius-von-Sachs-Platz 2, D-97082 Würzburg, Germany.
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Athwal GS, Huber SC. Divalent cations and polyamines bind to loop 8 of 14-3-3 proteins, modulating their interaction with phosphorylated nitrate reductase. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2002; 29:119-129. [PMID: 11851916 DOI: 10.1046/j.0960-7412.2001.01200.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Binding of 14-3-3 proteins to nitrate reductase phosphorylated on Ser543 (phospho-NR) inhibits activity and is responsible for the inactivation of nitrate reduction that occurs in darkened leaves. The 14-3-3-dependent inactivation of phospho-NR is known to require millimolar concentrations of a divalent cation such as Mg2+ at pH 7.5. We now report that micromolar concentrations of the polyamines, spermidine(4+) and spermine(3+), can substitute for divalent cations in modulating 14-3-3 action. Effectiveness of the polyamines decreased with a decrease of polycation charge: spermine(4+) > spermidine(3+) >>> cadavarine(2+) approximately putrescine(2+) approximately agmatine(2+) approximately N1-acetylspermidine(2+), indicating that two primary and at least one secondary amine group were required. C-terminal truncations of GF14 omega, which encodes the Arabidopsis 14-3-3 isoform omega, indicated that loop 8 (residues 208-219) is the likely cation-binding site. Directed mutagenesis of loop 8, which contains the EF hand-like region identified in earlier studies, was performed to test the role of specific amino acid residues in cation binding. The E208A mutant resulted in a largely divalent cation-independent inhibition of phospho-NR activity, whereas the D219A mutant was fully Mg(2+)-dependent but had decreased affinity for the cation. Mutations and C-terminal truncations that affected the Mg(2+) dependence of phospho-NR inactivation had similar effects on polyamine dependence. The results implicate loop 8 as the site of divalent cation and polyamine binding, and suggest that activation of 14-3-3s occurs, at least in part, by neutralization of negative charges associated with acidic residues in the loop. We propose that binding of polyamines to 14-3-3s could be involved in their regulation of plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurdeep S Athwal
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, and Department of Horticultural Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7631, USA
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Molecular Control of Nitrate Reductase and Other Enzymes Involved in Nitrate Assimilation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/0-306-48138-3_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
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Kaiser WM, Huber SC. Post-translational regulation of nitrate reductase: mechanism, physiological relevance and environmental triggers. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2001; 52:1981-9. [PMID: 11559733 DOI: 10.1093/jexbot/52.363.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Assimilatory nitrate reductase (NR) of higher plants is a most interesting enzyme, both from its central function in plant primary metabolism and from the complex regulation of its expression and control of catalytic activity and degradation. Here, present knowledge about the mechanism of post-translational regulation of NR is summarized and the properties of the regulatory enzymes involved (protein kinases, protein phosphatases and 14-3-3-binding proteins) are described. It is shown that light and oxygen availability are the major external triggers for the rapid and reversible modulation of NR activity, and that sugars and/or sugar phosphates are the internal signals which regulate the protein kinase(s) and phosphatase. It is also demonstrated that stress factors like nitrate deficiency and salinity have remarkably little direct influence on the NR activation state. Further, changes in NR activity measured in vitro are not always associated with changes in nitrate reduction rates in vivo, suggesting that NR can be under strong substrate limitation. The degradation and half-life of the NR protein also appear to be affected by NR phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding, as NR activation always correlates positively with its stability. However, it is not known whether the molecular form of NR in vivo affects its susceptibility to proteolytic degradation, or whether factors that affect the NR activation state also independently affect the activity or induction of the NR protease(s). A second and potentially important function of NR, the production of nitric oxide (NO) from nitrite is briefly described, but it remains to be determined whether NR produces NO for pathogen/stress signalling in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- W M Kaiser
- Julius-von-Sachs-Institut für Biowissenschaften, Lehrstuhl für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie und Biophysik, Julius-von-Sachs-Platz 2, D-97082 Würzburg, Germany.
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