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X-ray Dark-Field Imaging (XDFI)-a Promising Tool for 3D Virtual Histopathology. Mol Imaging Biol 2021; 23:481-494. [PMID: 33624229 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-020-01577-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
X-ray dark-field imaging (XDFI) utilizing a thin silicon crystal under Laue case enables visualizing three-dimensional (3D) morphological alterations of human tissue. XDFI uses refraction-contrast derived from phase shift rather than absorption as the main X-ray image contrast source to render 2D and 3D images of tissue specimens in unprecedented detail. The unique features of XDFI are its extremely high sensitivity (approximately 1000:1 compared to absorption for soft tissues under X-ray energy of around 20 keV, theoretically) and excellent resolution (8.5 μm) without requiring contrast medium or staining. Thus, XDFI-computed tomography can generate 3D virtual histological images equivalent to those of stained histological sections pathologists observe under low-power light microscopy as far as organs and tissues selected as samples in preliminary studies. This paper reviews the fundamental principles and the potential of XDFI, describes two optical setups for XDFI with examples, illustrates features of XDFI that are salient for histopathology, and presents XDFI examples of refraction-contrast images of atherosclerotic plaques, musculoskeletal tissue, neuronal tissue, and breast cancer specimens. Availability of this X-ray imaging in routine histopathological evaluations of tissue specimens would help guide clinical decision making by highlighting suspicious areas in unstained, thick sections for further sampling and analysis using conventional histopathological techniques. XDFI is a promising tool for 3D virtual histopathology.
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X-ray dark-field phase-contrast imaging: Origins of the concept to practical implementation and applications. Phys Med 2020; 79:188-208. [PMID: 33342666 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2020.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The basic idea of X-ray dark-field imaging (XDFI), first presented in 2000, was based on the concepts used in an X-ray interferometer. In this article, we review 20 years of developments in our theoretical understanding, scientific instrumentation, and experimental demonstration of XDFI and its applications to medical imaging. We first describe the concepts underlying XDFI that are responsible for imparting phase contrast information in projection X-ray images. We then review the algorithms that can convert these projection phase images into three-dimensional tomographic slices. Various implementations of computed tomography reconstructions algorithms for XDFI data are discussed. The next four sections describe and illustrate potential applications of XDFI in pathology, musculoskeletal imaging, oncologic imaging, and neuroimaging. The sample applications that are presented illustrate potential use scenarios for XDFI in histopathology and other clinical applications. Finally, the last section presents future perspectives and potential technical developments that can make XDFI an even more powerful tool.
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Imaging with ultra-small-angle X-ray scattering using a Laue-case analyzer and its application to human breast tumors. Phys Med 2017; 44:236-242. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmp.2017.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 09/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Shirai R, Kunii T, Yoneyama A, Ooizumi T, Maruyama H, Lwin TT, Hyodo K, Takeda T. Enhanced renal image contrast by ethanol fixation in phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2014; 21:795-800. [PMID: 24971977 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577514010558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Phase-contrast X-ray imaging using a crystal X-ray interferometer can depict the fine structures of biological objects without the use of a contrast agent. To obtain higher image contrast, fixation techniques have been examined with 100% ethanol and the commonly used 10% formalin, since ethanol causes increased density differences against background due to its physical properties and greater dehydration of soft tissue. Histological comparison was also performed. A phase-contrast X-ray system was used, fitted with a two-crystal X-ray interferometer at 35 keV X-ray energy. Fine structures, including cortex, tubules in the medulla, and the vessels of ethanol-fixed kidney could be visualized more clearly than that of formalin-fixed tissues. In the optical microscopic images, shrinkage of soft tissue and decreased luminal space were observed in ethanol-fixed kidney; and this change was significantly shown in the cortex and outer stripe of the outer medulla. The ethanol fixation technique enhances image contrast by approximately 2.7-3.2 times in the cortex and the outer stripe of the outer medulla; the effect of shrinkage and the physical effect of ethanol cause an increment of approximately 78% and 22%, respectively. Thus, the ethanol-fixation technique enables the image contrast to be enhanced in phase-contrast X-ray imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Shirai
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Takuya Kunii
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Akio Yoneyama
- Central Research Laboratory, Hitachi Ltd, 2520 Akanuma, Hatoyama, Saitama 350-0395, Japan
| | - Takahito Ooizumi
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Hiroko Maruyama
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences and Allied Health Science, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Thet Thet Lwin
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences and Allied Health Science, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Hyodo
- High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, 1-1 Ooho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-0801, Japan
| | - Tohoru Takeda
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences and Allied Health Science, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Sagamihara-shi, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
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Zhang J, Tian D, Lin R, zhou G, Peng G, Su M. Phase-contrast X-ray CT imaging of esophagus and esophageal carcinoma. Sci Rep 2014; 4:5332. [PMID: 24939041 PMCID: PMC4061548 DOI: 10.1038/srep05332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The electron density resolution is 1000 times higher for synchrotron-radiation phase-contrast CT imaging than conventional X-ray absorption imaging in light elements, with which high-resolution X-ray imaging of biological soft tissue can be achieved. In the present study, we used phase-contrast X-ray CT to investigate human resected esophagus and esophageal carcinoma specimens. This technology revealed the three-layer structure of the esophageal wall-- mucous, submucosa and muscular layers. The mucous and muscular layers were clearly separated by a loose submucosa layer with a honeycomb appearance. The surface of the mucous layer was smooth. In esophageal carcinoma, because of tumor tissue infiltration, the submucosa layer was absent, which indicated destruction of the submucosa. The boundary between normal tissue and tumor was comparatively fuzzy, the three-layer structure of the esophageal wall was indistinct. The surface of the mucous layer was rugose. The technology might be helpful in tumor staging of esophageal carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfa Zhang
- First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongping Tian
- Institute of Clinical Pathology & Department of Pathology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Judicial Critical Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Runhua Lin
- Institute of Clinical Pathology & Department of Pathology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangzhao zhou
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201204, China
| | - Guanyun Peng
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201204, China
| | - Min Su
- Institute of Clinical Pathology & Department of Pathology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- The Judicial Critical Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
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Chen GH, Zambelli J, Bevins N, Qi Z, Li K. X-ray phase sensitive imaging methods: basic physical principles and potential medical applications. Curr Med Imaging 2010; 6:90-99. [PMID: 23970846 DOI: 10.2174/157340510791268533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Phase sensitive imaging theoretically allows for a drastic reduction in x-ray dose while simultaneously achieving comparable or better spatial and contrast resolution compared to traditional x-ray absorption based imaging. Several techniques exist to extract the phase information from an x-ray signal, including x-ray interferometry, diffraction enhanced imaging, in-line holography, coded aperture x-ray imaging, and grating-based interferometry. The physics of each method is reviewed, along with the potential clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Hong Chen
- Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison
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Richter CP, Shintani-Smith S, Fishman A, David C, Robinson I, Rau C. Imaging of cochlear tissue with a grating interferometer and hard X-rays. Microsc Res Tech 2010; 72:902-7. [PMID: 19455683 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.20728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This article addresses an important current development in medical and biological imaging: the possibility of imaging soft tissue at resolutions in the micron range using hard X-rays. Challenging environments, including the cochlea, require the imaging of soft tissue structure surrounded by bone. We demonstrate that cochlear soft tissue structures can be imaged with hard X-ray phase contrast. Furthermore, we show that only a thin slice of the tissue is required to introduce a large phase shift. It is likely that the phase contrast image of the soft tissue structures is sufficient to image the structures even if surrounded by bone. For the present set of experiments, structures with low-absorption contrast have been visualized using in-line phase contrast imaging and a grating interferometer. The experiments have been performed at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratories, a third generation source of synchrotron radiation. The source provides highly coherent X-ray radiation with high-photon flux (>10(12) photons/s) at high-photon energies (5-70 keV). Radiographic and light microscopy images of the gerbil cochlear slice samples were compared. It has been determined that a 20-mum thick tissue slice induces a phase shift between 1/3pi and 2/3pi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claus-Peter Richter
- Department of Otolaryngology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611-3008, USA.
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Wu J, Takeda T, Thet Lwin T, Momose A, Sunaguchi N, Fukami T, Yuasa T, Akatsuka T. Imaging renal structures by X-ray phase-contrast microtomography. Kidney Int 2009; 75:945-51. [DOI: 10.1038/ki.2009.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Hirano K, Miyoshi T, Igarashi N, Takeda T, Wu J, Lwin TT, Kubota M, Egami N, Tanioka K, Kawai T, Wakatsuki S. X-ray phase imaging of biological soft tissue using a direct-sensing x-ray HARP tube camera. Phys Med Biol 2007; 52:2545-52. [PMID: 17440251 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/52/9/014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A HDTV camera having a direct-sensing x-ray high-gain avalanche rushing amorphous photoconductor (HARP) tube was used, for the first time, to acquire x-ray phase maps. The tube can achieve a high sensitivity as a result of the avalanche multiplication process in the HARP target. A beryllium plate, rather than a glass plate, was used as the face plate of the tube to minimize the loss of x-rays due to absorption, and a 15 microm thick HARP target was directly formed on it. In the experiment, the x-ray phase shifts produced by a rat liver were measured using synchrotron x-rays (lambda = 0.0766 nm) and a triple Laue-case (LLL) x-ray interferometer. Interference patterns produced by the sample were observed with the direct-sensing x-ray HARP tube camera. A voltage of 1300 V was applied to the HARP target to give an output signal gain of two. The camera was operated in 1125 scanning-line mode, and real-time images were stored on a workstation at a rate of 30 images/s with an image format of 960 (H) x 1100 (V) pixels. A phase-map image of the sample was successfully obtained using the fringe scanning method and phase unwrapping. The observed phase shifts ranged from 50 degrees to 200 degrees . Trees of blood vessels in the rat liver were clearly depicted without using a contrast agent. The spatial resolution of the x-ray camera was estimated to be better than 35 microm in the vertical direction and 100 microm in the horizontal direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Hirano
- Photon Factory, National Laboratory for High Energy Physics, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0801, Japan.
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Takeda T, Momose A, Wu J, Yu Q, Zeniya T, Yoneyama A, Itai Y. Vessel imaging by interferometric phase-contrast X-ray technique. Circulation 2002; 105:1708-12. [PMID: 11940551 DOI: 10.1161/01.cir.0000012752.35225.6c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phase-contrast x-ray imaging using an x-ray interferometer has great potential to reveal the structures inside soft tissues, because the sensitivity of this method to hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is approximately 1000 times higher than that of the absorption-contrast x-ray method. Imaging of vessels is very important to understand the vascular distribution of organs and tumors, so the possibility of selective angiography based on phase contrast is examined with a physiological material composed of low-atomic-number elements. METHODS AND RESULTS Phase-contrast x-ray imaging was performed with a synchrotron x-ray source. Differences in refractive index, ddelta, of physiological saline, lactated Ringer's solution, 5% glucose, artificial blood such as pyridoxylated hemoglobin-polyoxyethylene conjugate, and perfluorotributylamine were measured. Because the ddelta of physiological saline has highest contrast, it was used for the phase-contrast x-ray imaging of vessel, and this was compared with absorption-contrast x-ray images. Vessels >0.03 mm in diameter of excised liver from rats and a rabbit were revealed clearly in phase-contrast x-ray imaging, whereas the vessel could not be revealed at all by the absorption-contrast x-ray image. Absorption-contrast x-ray images with iodine microspheres depicted only portal veins >0.1 mm in diameter with nearly the same x-ray dose as the present phase-contrast x-ray imaging. CONCLUSIONS Phase-contrast x-ray imaging explored clear depiction of the vessels using physiological saline with small doses of x-rays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohoru Takeda
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, Japan.
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