1
|
Ibrahim KA, El-Ashrey MK, Kashef MT, Helmy OM. Alanine racemase a promising Helicobacter pylori drug target inhibited by propanoic acid. Microbes Infect 2023; 25:105167. [PMID: 37271368 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2023.105167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Eradication of Helicobacter pylori, the class 1 carcinogen, faces several obstacles, which demand alternative options to conventional drug development methods. Alanine racemase (Alr) was proposed as H. pylori drug target, inhibited by propanoic acid (PA), in a previous in silico study. We investigated the possible treatment of H. pylori infection through Alr inhibition. A new model of H. pylori Alr was built, validated, and the binding of PA to the active site was modelled via molecular docking with a good docking score. PA minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against H. pylori ATCC 43504 and six H. pylori clinical isolates ranged from 312.5 to 416.7 ± 180 μg/ml and remained unchanged after 14 serial passages in increasing PA concentrations. The minimum bactericidal concentration of PA was 625 μg/ml. Selective Alr inhibition was confirmed by a significant PA MIC increase with increasing d-alanine concentrations. Similar PA MIC in other tested pathogens was recorded (312.5-625 μg/ml). PA lacked cytotoxicity in tested cell lines and efficiently eradicated H. pylori in a rat infection model. In conclusion, Alr is a promising broad-spectrum drug target, inhibited by PA without resistance development by repeated exposure for 14 serial passages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kareem A Ibrahim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Egyptian Russian University, Suez Road, Cairo, 11829, Egypt
| | - Mohamed K El-Ashrey
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr Elini St., Cairo, 11562, Egypt; Medicinal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Salman International University, Ras-Sedr, South Sinai, Egypt
| | - Mona T Kashef
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, 11562, Egypt.
| | - Omneya M Helmy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, 11562, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hirato Y, Goto M, Mizobuchi T, Muramatsu H, Tanigawa M, Nishimura K. Structure of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-bound D-threonine aldolase from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Acta Crystallogr F Struct Biol Commun 2023; 79:31-37. [PMID: 36748339 PMCID: PMC9903138 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x23000304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
D-Threonine aldolase (DTA) is a pyridoxal-5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme which catalyzes the reversible aldol reaction of glycine with a corresponding aldehyde to yield the D-form β-hydroxy-α-amino acid. This study produced and investigated the crystal structure of DTA from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (CrDTA) at 1.85 Å resolution. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the crystal structure of eukaryotic DTA. Compared with the structure of bacterial DTA, CrDTA has a similar arrangement of active-site residues. On the other hand, we speculated that some non-conserved residues alter the affinity for substrates and inhibitors. The structure of CrDTA could provide insights into the structural framework for structure-guided protein engineering studies to modify reaction selectivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Hirato
- Department of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Science, Toho University, 2-2-1 Miyama, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan
| | - Masaru Goto
- Department of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Science, Toho University, 2-2-1 Miyama, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan
| | - Taichi Mizobuchi
- Department of Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Science, Toho University, 2-2-1 Miyama, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan
| | - Hisashi Muramatsu
- Multidisciplinary Science Cluster, Research and Education Faculty, Kochi University, B200 Monobe, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8502, Japan
| | - Minoru Tanigawa
- Department of Materials and Applied Chemistry, College of Science and Technology, Nihon University, Building No. 2, 1-5-1 Kanda Surugadai, Chiyoda, Tokyo 101-0062, Japan
| | - Katsushi Nishimura
- Department of Materials and Applied Chemistry, College of Science and Technology, Nihon University, Building No. 2, 1-5-1 Kanda Surugadai, Chiyoda, Tokyo 101-0062, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Norsigian CJ, Danhof HA, Brand CK, Oezguen N, Midani FS, Palsson BO, Savidge TC, Britton RA, Spinler JK, Monk JM. Systems biology analysis of the Clostridioides difficile core-genome contextualizes microenvironmental evolutionary pressures leading to genotypic and phenotypic divergence. NPJ Syst Biol Appl 2020; 6:31. [PMID: 33082337 PMCID: PMC7576604 DOI: 10.1038/s41540-020-00151-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hospital acquired Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection is exacerbated by the continued evolution of C. difficile strains, a phenomenon studied by multiple laboratories using stock cultures specific to each laboratory. Intralaboratory evolution of strains contributes to interlaboratory variation in experimental results adding to the challenges of scientific rigor and reproducibility. To explore how microevolution of C. difficile within laboratories influences the metabolic capacity of an organism, three different laboratory stock isolates of the C. difficile 630 reference strain were whole-genome sequenced and profiled in over 180 nutrient environments using phenotypic microarrays. The results identified differences in growth dynamics for 32 carbon sources including trehalose, fructose, and mannose. An updated genome-scale model for C. difficile 630 was constructed and used to contextualize the 28 unique mutations observed between the stock cultures. The integration of phenotypic screens with model predictions identified pathways enabling catabolism of ethanolamine, salicin, arbutin, and N-acetyl-galactosamine that differentiated individual C. difficile 630 laboratory isolates. The reconstruction was used as a framework to analyze the core-genome of 415 publicly available C. difficile genomes and identify areas of metabolism prone to evolution within the species. Genes encoding enzymes and transporters involved in starch metabolism and iron acquisition were more variable while C. difficile distinct metabolic functions like Stickland fermentation were more consistent. A substitution in the trehalose PTS system was identified with potential implications in strain virulence. Thus, pairing genome-scale models with large-scale physiological and genomic data enables a mechanistic framework for studying the evolution of pathogens within microenvironments and will lead to predictive modeling to combat pathogen emergence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Norsigian
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Heather A Danhof
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Alkek Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Colleen K Brand
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Alkek Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Numan Oezguen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Firas S Midani
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Alkek Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Bernhard O Palsson
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Tor C Savidge
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Robert A Britton
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Alkek Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jennifer K Spinler
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jonathan M Monk
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Pharmacomodulations of the benzoyl-thiosemicarbazide scaffold reveal antimicrobial agents targeting d-alanyl-d-alanine ligase in bacterio. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 200:112444. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
5
|
Ballard A, Narduolo S, Ahmed HO, Keymer NI, Asaad N, Cosgrove DA, Buurma NJ, Leach AG. Racemisation in Chemistry and Biology. Chemistry 2020; 26:3661-3687. [PMID: 31709642 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201903917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The two enantiomers of a compound often have profoundly different biological properties and thus their liability to racemisation in aqueous solutions is an important piece of information. The authors reviewed the available data concerning the process of racemisation in vivo, in the presence of biological molecules (e.g., racemase enzymes, serum albumin, cofactors and derivatives) and under purely chemical but aqueous conditions (acid, base and other aqueous systems). Mechanistic studies are described critically in light of reported kinetic data. The types of experimental measurement that can be used to effectively determine rate constants of racemisation in various conditions are discussed and the data they provide is summarised. The proposed origins of enzymatic racemisation are presented and suggest ways to promote the process that are different from processes taking place in bulk water. Experimental and computational studies that provide understanding and quantitative predictions of racemisation risk are also presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Ballard
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Stefania Narduolo
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Hiwa O Ahmed
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK.,Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Hawler Medical University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
| | - Nathaniel I Keymer
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Nabil Asaad
- AstraZeneca, Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, SK10 4TG, UK
| | | | - Niklaas J Buurma
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Main Building, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Andrew G Leach
- Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
D-Cycloserine destruction by alanine racemase and the limit of irreversible inhibition. Nat Chem Biol 2020; 16:686-694. [PMID: 32203411 PMCID: PMC7246083 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-020-0498-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The broad-spectrum antibiotic D-cycloserine (DCS) is a key component of regimens used to treat multi- and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. DCS, a structural analog of D-alanine, binds to and inactivates two essential enzymes involved in peptidoglycan biosynthesis, alanine racemase (Alr) and D-Ala:D-Ala ligase. Inactivation of Alr is thought to proceed via a mechanism-based irreversible route, forming an adduct with the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate cofactor, leading to bacterial death. Inconsistent with this hypothesis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Alr activity can be detected after exposure to clinically relevant DCS concentrations. To address this paradox, we investigated the chemical mechanism of Alr inhibition by DCS. Inhibition of M. tuberculosis Alr and other Alrs is reversible, mechanistically revealed by a previously unidentified DCS-adduct hydrolysis. Dissociation and subsequent rearrangement to a stable substituted oxime explains Alr reactivation in the cellular milieu. This knowledge provides a novel route for discovery of improved Alr inhibitors against M. tuberculosis and other bacteria.
Collapse
|
7
|
Biochemical characterization and mutational analysis of alanine racemase from Clostridium perfringens. J Biosci Bioeng 2019; 128:149-155. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2019.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
8
|
Portelli S, Phelan JE, Ascher DB, Clark TG, Furnham N. Understanding molecular consequences of putative drug resistant mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15356. [PMID: 30337649 PMCID: PMC6193939 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33370-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic studies of Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria have revealed loci associated with resistance to anti-tuberculosis drugs. However, the molecular consequences of polymorphism within these candidate loci remain poorly understood. To address this, we have used computational tools to quantify the effects of point mutations conferring resistance to three major anti-tuberculosis drugs, isoniazid (n = 189), rifampicin (n = 201) and D-cycloserine (n = 48), within their primary targets, katG, rpoB, and alr. Notably, mild biophysical effects brought about by high incidence mutations were considered more tolerable, while different structural effects brought about by haplotype combinations reflected differences in their functional importance. Additionally, highly destabilising mutations such as alr Y388, highlighted a functional importance of the wildtype residue. Our qualitative analysis enabled us to relate resistance mutations onto a theoretical landscape linking enthalpic changes with phenotype. Such insights will aid the development of new resistance-resistant drugs and, via an integration into predictive tools, in pathogen surveillance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Portelli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3051, Australia
| | - Jody E Phelan
- Department of Pathogen Molecular Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - David B Ascher
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3051, Australia
| | - Taane G Clark
- Department of Pathogen Molecular Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Nicholas Furnham
- Department of Pathogen Molecular Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Azam MA, Jayaram U. Induced fit docking, free energy calculation and molecular dynamics studies on Mycobacterium tuberculosis alanine racemase inhibitor. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2017.1393811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Afzal Azam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy (A Constituent College of Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara University, Mysuru) Udhagamandalam, India
| | - Unni Jayaram
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy (A Constituent College of Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara University, Mysuru) Udhagamandalam, India
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Shrestha R, Lockless SW, Sorg JA. A Clostridium difficile alanine racemase affects spore germination and accommodates serine as a substrate. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:10735-10742. [PMID: 28487371 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.791749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile has become one of the most common bacterial pathogens in hospital-acquired infections in the United States. Although C. difficile is strictly anaerobic, it survives in aerobic environments and transmits between hosts via spores. C. difficile spore germination is triggered in response to certain bile acids and glycine. Although glycine is the most effective co-germinant, other amino acids can substitute with varying efficiencies. Of these, l-alanine is an effective co-germinant and is also a germinant for most bacterial spores. Many endospore-forming bacteria embed alanine racemases into their spore coats, and these enzymes are thought to convert the l-alanine germinant into d-alanine, a spore germination inhibitor. Although the C. difficile Alr2 racemase is the sixth most highly expressed gene during C. difficile spore formation, a previous study reported that Alr2 has little to no role in germination of C. difficile spores in rich medium. Here, we hypothesized that Alr2 could affect C. difficile l-alanine-induced spore germination in a defined medium. We found that alr2 mutant spores more readily germinate in response to l-alanine as a co-germinant. Surprisingly, d-alanine also functioned as a co-germinant. Moreover, we found that Alr2 could interconvert l- and d-serine and that Alr2 bound to l- and d-serine with ∼2-fold weaker affinity to that of l- and d-alanine. Finally, we demonstrate that l- and d-serine are also co-germinants for C. difficile spores. These results suggest that C. difficile spores can respond to a diverse set of amino acid co-germinants and reveal that Alr2 can accommodate serine as a substrate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ritu Shrestha
- From the Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Steve W Lockless
- From the Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Joseph A Sorg
- From the Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Vancomycin resistance in Gram-positive bacteria results from the replacement of the d-alanyl–d-alanine target of peptidoglycan precursors with d-alanyl–d-lactate or d-alanyl–d-serine (d-Ala-d-Ser), to which vancomycin has low binding affinity. VanT is one of the proteins required for the production of d-Ala-d-Ser-terminating precursors by converting l-Ser to d-Ser. VanT is composed of two domains, an N-terminal membrane-bound domain, likely involved in l-Ser uptake, and a C-terminal cytoplasmic catalytic domain which is related to bacterial alanine racemases. To gain insight into the molecular function of VanT, the crystal structure of the catalytic domain of VanTG from VanG-type resistant Enterococcus faecalis BM4518 was determined. The structure showed significant similarity to type III pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP)-dependent alanine racemases, which are essential for peptidoglycan synthesis. Comparative structural analysis between VanTG and alanine racemases as well as site-directed mutagenesis identified three specific active site positions centered around Asn696 which are responsible for the l-amino acid specificity. This analysis also suggested that VanT racemases evolved from regular alanine racemases by acquiring additional selectivity toward serine while preserving that for alanine. The 4-fold-lower relative catalytic efficiency of VanTG against l-Ser versus l-Ala implied that this enzyme relies on its membrane-bound domain for l-Ser transport to increase the overall rate of d-Ser production. These findings illustrate how vancomycin pressure selected for molecular adaptation of a housekeeping enzyme to a bifunctional enzyme to allow for peptidoglycan remodeling, a strategy increasingly observed in antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Vancomycin is one of the drugs of last resort against Gram-positive antibiotic-resistant pathogens. However, bacteria have evolved a sophisticated mechanism which remodels the drug target, the d-alanine ending precursors in cell wall synthesis, into precursors terminating with d-lactate or d-serine, to which vancomycin has less affinity. d-Ser is synthesized by VanT serine racemase, which has two unusual characteristics: (i) it is one of the few serine racemases identified in bacteria and (ii) it contains a membrane-bound domain involved in l-Ser uptake. The structure of the catalytic domain of VanTG showed high similarity to alanine racemases, and we identified three specific active site substitutions responsible for l-Ser specificity. The data provide the molecular basis for VanT evolution to a bifunctional enzyme coordinating both transport and racemization. Our findings also illustrate the evolution of the essential alanine racemase into a vancomycin resistance enzyme in response to antibiotic pressure.
Collapse
|
12
|
Sun X, He G, Wang X, Xu S, Ju J, Xu X. Crystal Structure of a Thermostable Alanine Racemase from Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4 Reveals the Role of Gln360 in Substrate Selection. PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26218070 PMCID: PMC4517790 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyridoxal 5’-phosphate (PLP) dependent alanine racemase catalyzes racemization of L-Ala to D-Ala, a key component of the peptidoglycan network in bacterial cell wall. It has been extensively studied as an important antimicrobial drug target due to its restriction in eukaryotes. However, many marketed alanine racemase inhibitors also act on eukaryotic PLP-dependent enzymes and cause side effects. A thermostable alanine racemase (AlrTt) from Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis MB4 contains an evolutionarily non-conserved residue Gln360 in inner layer of the substrate entryway, which is supposed to be a key determinant in substrate specificity. Here we determined the crystal structure of AlrTt in complex with L-Ala at 2.7 Å resolution, and investigated the role of Gln360 by saturation mutagenesis and kinetic analysis. Compared to typical bacterial alanine racemase, presence of Gln360 and conformational changes of active site residues disrupted the hydrogen bonding interactions necessary for proper PLP immobilization, and decreased both the substrate affinity and turnover number of AlrTt. However, it could be complemented by introduction of hydrophobic amino acids at Gln360, through steric blocking and interactions with a hydrophobic patch near active site pocket. These observations explained the low racemase activity of AlrTt, revealed the essential role of Gln360 in substrate selection, and its preference for hydrophobic amino acids especially Tyr in bacterial alanine racemization. Our work will contribute new insights into the alanine racemization mechanism for antimicrobial drug development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang Sun
- Institute of Ageing Research, School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guangzheng He
- College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- Institute of Ageing Research, School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shujing Xu
- College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Jiansong Ju
- College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
- * E-mail: (JSJ); (XLX)
| | - Xiaoling Xu
- Institute of Ageing Research, School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
- * E-mail: (JSJ); (XLX)
| |
Collapse
|