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Bettelli M, Zanettini S, Abbene L, Casoli F, Nasi L, Trevisi G, Principato F, Buttacavoli A, Zappettini A. High performance platinum contacts on high-flux CdZnTe detectors. Sci Rep 2023; 13:17963. [PMID: 37864099 PMCID: PMC10589347 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-45331-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The need for direct X-ray detection under high photon flux with moderate or high energies (30-100 keV range) has strongly increased with the rise of the 4th Generation Synchrotron Light Sources, characterised by extremely brilliant beamlines, and of other applications such as spectral computed tomography in medicine and non-destructive tests for industry. The novel Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) developed by Redlen Technologies can be considered the reference material for high-flux applications (HF-CZT). The enhanced charge transport properties of the holes allow the mitigation of the effects of radiation induced polarization phenomena, typically observed in standard CZT materials (LF-CZT) under high photon flux. However, standard LF-CZT electrical contacts led to inacceptable high dark leakage currents on HF-CZT devices. In this work, a detailed study on the characteristics of new optimized sputtered platinum electrical contacts on HF-CZT detectors is reported. The results from electrical and spectroscopic investigations, showed the best performances on HF-CZT detectors with platinum anode, coupled with both platinum or gold cathode. The morphology, structure, and composition of Pt/CZT contact have been analysed by means of Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) on microscopic lamellas obtained by Focused Ion Beam (FIB), highlighting the presence of CdTeO3 oxide at the metal semiconductor interface.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC) - Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128, Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC) - Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC) - Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128, Palermo, Italy
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2
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Abbene L, Buttacavoli A, Principato F, Gerardi G, Bettelli M, Zappettini A, Bazzi M, Bragadireanu M, Cargnelli M, Carminati M, Clozza A, Deda G, Del Grande R, De Paolis L, Fabbietti L, Fiorini C, Guaraldo C, Iliescu M, Iwasaki M, Khreptak A, Manti S, Marton J, Miliucci M, Moskal P, Napolitano F, Niedźwiecki S, Ohnishi H, Piscicchia K, Sada Y, Sgaramella F, Shi H, Silarski M, Sirghi DL, Sirghi F, Skurzok M, Spallone A, Toho K, Tüchler M, Doce OV, Yoshida C, Zmeskal J, Scordo A, Curceanu C. Potentialities of CdZnTe Quasi-Hemispherical Detectors for Hard X-ray Spectroscopy of Kaonic Atoms at the DAΦNE Collider. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7328. [PMID: 37687783 PMCID: PMC10490229 DOI: 10.3390/s23177328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Kaonic atom X-ray spectroscopy is a consolidated technique for investigations on the physics of strong kaon-nucleus/nucleon interaction. Several experiments have been conducted regarding the measurement of soft X-ray emission (<20 keV) from light kaonic atoms (hydrogen, deuterium, and helium). Currently, there have been new research activities within the framework of the SIDDHARTA-2 experiment and EXCALIBUR proposal focusing on performing precise and accurate measurements of hard X-rays (>20 keV) from intermediate kaonic atoms (carbon, aluminum, and sulfur). In this context, we investigated cadmium-zinc-telluride (CdZnTe or CZT) detectors, which have recently demonstrated high-resolution capabilities for hard X-ray and gamma-ray detection. A demonstrator prototype based on a new cadmium-zinc-telluride quasi-hemispherical detector and custom digital pulse processing electronics was developed. The detector covered a detection area of 1 cm2 with a single readout channel and interesting room-temperature performance with energy resolution of 4.4% (2.6 keV), 3% (3.7 keV), and 1.4% (9.3 keV) FWHM at 59.5, 122.1, and 662 keV, respectively. The results from X-ray measurements at the DAΦNE collider at the INFN National Laboratories of Frascati (Italy) are also presented with particular attention to the effects and rejection of electromagnetic and hadronic background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Manuele Bettelli
- Istituto Materiali per l’Elettronica e il Magnetismo, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IMEM/CNR), Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy
| | - Andrea Zappettini
- Istituto Materiali per l’Elettronica e il Magnetismo, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IMEM/CNR), Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Bazzi
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Mario Bragadireanu
- Horia Hulubei National Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Str. Atomistilor No. 407, 077125 Măgurele, Romania
| | | | - Marco Carminati
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, 20133 Milano, Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Sezione di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Alberto Clozza
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Griseld Deda
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, 20133 Milano, Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Sezione di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Raffaele Del Grande
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
- Physik Department E62, Technische Universität Münnchen, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Luca De Paolis
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Laura Fabbietti
- Physik Department E62, Technische Universität Münnchen, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Carlo Fiorini
- Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, 20133 Milano, Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Sezione di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Carlo Guaraldo
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Mihail Iliescu
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Misahiko Iwasaki
- Institute of Physical and Chemical Research (RIKEN), Wako, Tokyo 351-0198, Japan
| | - Aleksander Khreptak
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
- Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Simone Manti
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Johann Marton
- Stefan-Meyer-Institut für Subatomare Physik, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marco Miliucci
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Pawel Moskal
- Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 30-348 Krakow, Poland
- Center for Theranostics, Jagiellonian University, Kopernika 40, 31-501 Krakow, Poland
| | - Fabrizio Napolitano
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Szymon Niedźwiecki
- Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 30-348 Krakow, Poland
- Center for Theranostics, Jagiellonian University, Kopernika 40, 31-501 Krakow, Poland
| | - Hiroaky Ohnishi
- Research Center for Electron Photon Science (ELPH), Tohoku University, Sendai 982-0826, Japan
| | - Kristian Piscicchia
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
- Centro Ricerche Enrico Fermi—Museo Storico della Fisica e Centro Studi e Ricerche “Enrico Fermi”, 00184 Roma, Italy
| | - Yuta Sada
- Research Center for Electron Photon Science (ELPH), Tohoku University, Sendai 982-0826, Japan
| | - Francesco Sgaramella
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Hexi Shi
- Stefan-Meyer-Institut für Subatomare Physik, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michalł Silarski
- Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Diana Laura Sirghi
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
- Horia Hulubei National Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Str. Atomistilor No. 407, 077125 Măgurele, Romania
- Centro Ricerche Enrico Fermi—Museo Storico della Fisica e Centro Studi e Ricerche “Enrico Fermi”, 00184 Roma, Italy
| | - Florin Sirghi
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
- Horia Hulubei National Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Str. Atomistilor No. 407, 077125 Măgurele, Romania
| | - Magdalena Skurzok
- Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, 30-348 Krakow, Poland
- Center for Theranostics, Jagiellonian University, Kopernika 40, 31-501 Krakow, Poland
| | - Antonio Spallone
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Kairo Toho
- Research Center for Electron Photon Science (ELPH), Tohoku University, Sendai 982-0826, Japan
| | - Marlene Tüchler
- Stefan-Meyer-Institut für Subatomare Physik, 1030 Vienna, Austria
- Vienna Doctoral School in Physics, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Oton Vazquez Doce
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Chihiro Yoshida
- Research Center for Electron Photon Science (ELPH), Tohoku University, Sendai 982-0826, Japan
| | - Johannes Zmeskal
- Stefan-Meyer-Institut für Subatomare Physik, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Alessandro Scordo
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Catalina Curceanu
- Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, INFN, Via E. Fermi 54, 00044 Frascati, Italy (C.C.)
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Principato F, Bettelli M, Zappettini A, Abbene L. A Novel Extraction Procedure of Contact Characteristic Parameters from Current-Voltage Curves in CdZnTe and CdTe Detectors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:6075. [PMID: 37447923 DOI: 10.3390/s23136075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
The estimation of the characteristic parameters of the electrical contacts in CdZnTe and CdTe detectors is related to the identification of the main transport mechanisms dominating the currents. These investigations are typically approached by modelling the current-voltage (I-V) curves with the interfacial layer-thermionic-diffusion (ITD) theory, which incorporates the thermionic emission, diffusion and interfacial layer theories into a single theory. The implementation of the ITD model in measured I-V curves is a critical procedure, requiring dedicated simplifications, several best fitting parameters and the identification of the voltage range where each transport mechanism dominates. In this work, we will present a novel method allowing through a simple procedure the estimation of some characteristic parameters of the metal-semiconductor interface in CdZnTe and CdTe detectors. The barrier height and the effects of the interfacial layer will be evaluated through the application of a new function related to the differentiation of the experimental I-V curves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | - Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
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4
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Buttacavoli A, Principato F, Gerardi G, Cascio D, Raso G, Bettelli M, Zappettini A, Taormina V, Abbene L. Window-Based Energy Selecting X-ray Imaging and Charge Sharing in Cadmium Zinc Telluride Linear Array Detectors for Contaminant Detection. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3196. [PMID: 36991907 PMCID: PMC10054609 DOI: 10.3390/s23063196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The spectroscopic and imaging performance of energy-resolved photon counting detectors, based on new sub-millimetre boron oxide encapsulated vertical Bridgman cadmium zinc telluride linear arrays, are presented in this work. The activities are in the framework of the AVATAR X project, planning the development of X-ray scanners for contaminant detection in food industry. The detectors, characterized by high spatial (250 µm) and energy (<3 keV) resolution, allow spectral X-ray imaging with interesting image quality improvements. The effects of charge sharing and energy-resolved techniques on contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) enhancements are investigated. The benefits of a new energy-resolved X-ray imaging approach, termed window-based energy selecting, in the detection of low- and high-density contaminants are also shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.)
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.)
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.)
| | - Donato Cascio
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.)
| | - Giuseppe Raso
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.)
| | | | | | - Vincenzo Taormina
- Department of Mathematics and Informatics, University of Palermo, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.)
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5
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Data Analysis and Filter Optimization for Pulse-Amplitude Measurement: A Case Study on High-Resolution X-ray Spectroscopy. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22134776. [PMID: 35808271 PMCID: PMC9269590 DOI: 10.3390/s22134776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we present a procedure to optimize a set of finite impulse response filter (FIR) coefficients for digital pulse-amplitude measurement. Such an optimized filter is designed using an adapted digital penalized least mean square (DPLMS) method. The effectiveness of the procedure is demonstrated using a dataset from a case study on high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy based on single-photon detection and energy measurements. The energy resolutions of the Kα and Kβ lines of the Manganese energy spectrum have been improved by approximately 20%, compared to the reference values obtained by fitting individual photon pulses with the corresponding mathematical model.
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6
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Buttacavoli A, Principato F, Gerardi G, Bettelli M, Zappettini A, Seller P, Veale MC, Zanettini S, Abbene L. Ballistic Deficit Pulse Processing in Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Pixel Detectors for High-Flux X-ray Measurements. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22093409. [PMID: 35591099 PMCID: PMC9103549 DOI: 10.3390/s22093409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
High-flux X-ray measurements with high-energy resolution and high throughput require the mitigation of pile-up and dead time effects. The reduction of the time width of the shaped pulses is a key approach, taking into account the distortions from the ballistic deficit, non-linearity, and time instabilities. In this work, we will present the performance of cadmium−zinc−telluride (CdZnTe or CZT) pixel detectors equipped with digital shapers faster than the preamplifier peaking times (ballistic deficit pulse processing). The effects on energy resolution, throughput, energy-linearity, time stability, charge sharing, and pile-up are shown. The results highlight the absence of time instabilities and high-energy resolution (<4% FWHM at 122 keV) when ballistic deficit pulse processing (dead time of 90 ns) was used in CZT pixel detectors. These activities are in the framework of an international collaboration on the development of spectroscopic imagers for medical applications (mammography, computed tomography) and non-destructive testing in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.)
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.)
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.)
| | - Manuele Bettelli
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Andrea Zappettini
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Paul Seller
- UKRI Science & Technology Facilities Council, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK; (P.S.); (M.C.V.)
| | - Matthew C. Veale
- UKRI Science & Technology Facilities Council, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK; (P.S.); (M.C.V.)
| | | | - Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.)
- Correspondence:
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7
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Abbene L, Principato F, Buttacavoli A, Gerardi G, Bettelli M, Zappettini A, Altieri S, Auricchio N, Caroli E, Zanettini S, Protti N. Potentialities of High-Resolution 3-D CZT Drift Strip Detectors for Prompt Gamma-Ray Measurements in BNCT. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:1502. [PMID: 35214414 PMCID: PMC8878856 DOI: 10.3390/s22041502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Recently, new high-resolution cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT) drift strip detectors for room temperature gamma-ray spectroscopic imaging were developed by our group. The CZT detectors equipped with orthogonal anode/cathode collecting strips, drift strips and dedicated pulse processing allow a detection area of 6 × 20 mm2 and excellent room temperature spectroscopic performance (0.82% FWHM at 661.7 keV). In this work, we investigated the potentialities of these detectors for prompt gamma-ray spectroscopy (PGS) in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). The detectors, exploiting the measurement of the 478 keV prompt gamma rays emitted by 94% 7Li nuclides from the 10B(n, α)7Li reaction, are very appealing for the development of single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) systems and Compton cameras in BNCT. High-resolution gamma-ray spectra from 10B samples under thermal neutrons were measured at the T.R.I.G.A. Mark II research nuclear reactor of the University of Pavia (Italy).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (L.A.); (A.B.); (G.G.)
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (L.A.); (A.B.); (G.G.)
| | - Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (L.A.); (A.B.); (G.G.)
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (L.A.); (A.B.); (G.G.)
| | - Manuele Bettelli
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Andrea Zappettini
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Saverio Altieri
- Department of Physics, University of Pavia and Nuclear Physics National Institute (INFN), Unit of Pavia, Via Agostino Bassi 6, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (S.A.); (N.P.)
| | | | - Ezio Caroli
- INAF/OAS Bologna, 40129 Bologna, Italy; (N.A.); (E.C.)
| | | | - Nicoletta Protti
- Department of Physics, University of Pavia and Nuclear Physics National Institute (INFN), Unit of Pavia, Via Agostino Bassi 6, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (S.A.); (N.P.)
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8
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Buttacavoli A, Principato F, Gerardi G, Cascio D, Raso G, Bettelli M, Zappettini A, Seller P, Veale MC, Abbene L. Incomplete Charge Collection at Inter-Pixel Gap in Low- and High-Flux Cadmium Zinc Telluride Pixel Detectors. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22041441. [PMID: 35214342 PMCID: PMC8875842 DOI: 10.3390/s22041441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The success of cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors in room-temperature spectroscopic X-ray imaging is now widely accepted. The most common CZT detectors are characterized by enhanced-charge transport properties of electrons, with mobility-lifetime products μeτe > 10−2 cm2/V and μhτh > 10−5 cm2/V. These materials, typically termed low-flux LF-CZT, are successfully used for thick electron-sensing detectors and in low-flux conditions. Recently, new CZT materials with hole mobility-lifetime product enhancements (μhτh > 10−4 cm2/V and μeτe > 10−3 cm2/V) have been fabricated for high-flux measurements (high-flux HF-CZT detectors). In this work, we will present the performance and charge-sharing properties of sub-millimeter CZT pixel detectors based on LF-CZT and HF-CZT crystals. Experimental results from the measurement of energy spectra after charge-sharing addition (CSA) and from 2D X-ray mapping highlight the better charge-collection properties of HF-CZT detectors near the inter-pixel gaps. The successful mitigation of the effects of incomplete charge collection after CSA was also performed through original charge-sharing correction techniques. These activities exist in the framework of international collaboration on the development of energy-resolved X-ray scanners for medical applications and non-destructive testing in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Donato Cascio
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Giuseppe Raso
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Manuele Bettelli
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Andrea Zappettini
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Paul Seller
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UKRI Science & Technology Facilities Council, Oxon OX11 0QX, UK; (P.S.); (M.C.V.)
| | - Matthew C. Veale
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UKRI Science & Technology Facilities Council, Oxon OX11 0QX, UK; (P.S.); (M.C.V.)
| | - Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (F.P.); (G.G.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
- Correspondence:
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9
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Buttacavoli A, Gerardi G, Principato F, Mirabello M, Cascio D, Raso G, Bettelli M, Zappettini A, Seller P, Veale MC, Abbene L. Energy Recovery of Multiple Charge Sharing Events in Room Temperature Semiconductor Pixel Detectors. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21113669. [PMID: 34070426 PMCID: PMC8197486 DOI: 10.3390/s21113669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Multiple coincidence events from charge-sharing and fluorescent cross-talk are typical drawbacks in room-temperature semiconductor pixel detectors. The mitigation of these distortions in the measured energy spectra, using charge-sharing discrimination (CSD) and charge-sharing addition (CSA) techniques, is always a trade-off between counting efficiency and energy resolution. The energy recovery of multiple coincidence events is still challenging due to the presence of charge losses after CSA. In this work, we will present original techniques able to correct charge losses after CSA even when multiple pixels are involved. Sub-millimeter cadmium–zinc–telluride (CdZnTe or CZT) pixel detectors were investigated with both uncollimated radiation sources and collimated synchrotron X rays, at energies below and above the K-shell absorption energy of the CZT material. These activities are in the framework of an international collaboration on the development of energy-resolved photon counting (ERPC) systems for spectroscopic X-ray imaging up to 150 keV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (G.G.); (F.P.); (M.M.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (G.G.); (F.P.); (M.M.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (G.G.); (F.P.); (M.M.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Marcello Mirabello
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (G.G.); (F.P.); (M.M.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Donato Cascio
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (G.G.); (F.P.); (M.M.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Giuseppe Raso
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (G.G.); (F.P.); (M.M.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
| | - Manuele Bettelli
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Andrea Zappettini
- IMEM/CNR, Parco Area delle Scienze 37/A, 43100 Parma, Italy; (M.B.); (A.Z.)
| | - Paul Seller
- Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton OX11 0QX, UK; (P.S.); (M.C.V.)
| | - Matthew C. Veale
- Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton OX11 0QX, UK; (P.S.); (M.C.V.)
| | - Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC)-Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (A.B.); (G.G.); (F.P.); (M.M.); (D.C.); (G.R.)
- Correspondence:
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10
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Abbene L, Gerardi G, Principato F, Buttacavoli A, Altieri S, Protti N, Tomarchio E, Del Sordo S, Auricchio N, Bettelli M, Amadè NS, Zanettini S, Zappettini A, Caroli E. Recent advances in the development of high-resolution 3D cadmium-zinc-telluride drift strip detectors. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2020; 27:1564-1576. [PMID: 33147181 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577520010747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In the last two decades, great efforts have been made in the development of 3D cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT) detectors operating at room temperature for gamma-ray spectroscopic imaging. This work presents the spectroscopic performance of new high-resolution CZT drift strip detectors, recently developed at IMEM-CNR of Parma (Italy) in collaboration with due2lab (Italy). The detectors (19.4 mm × 19.4 mm × 6 mm) are organized into collecting anode strips (pitch of 1.6 mm) and drift strips (pitch of 0.4 mm) which are negatively biased to optimize electron charge collection. The cathode is divided into strips orthogonal to the anode strips with a pitch of 2 mm. Dedicated pulse processing analysis was performed on a wide range of collected and induced charge pulse shapes using custom 32-channel digital readout electronics. Excellent room-temperature energy resolution (1.3% FWHM at 662 keV) was achieved using the detectors without any spectral corrections. Further improvements (0.8% FWHM at 662 keV) were also obtained through a novel correction technique based on the analysis of collected-induced charge pulses from anode and drift strips. These activities are in the framework of two Italian research projects on the development of spectroscopic gamma-ray imagers (10-1000 keV) for astrophysical and medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Saverio Altieri
- Nuclear Physics National Institute (INFN), Unit of Pavia, via Agostino Bassi 6, Pavia 27100, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Protti
- Nuclear Physics National Institute (INFN), Unit of Pavia, via Agostino Bassi 6, Pavia 27100, Italy
| | - Elio Tomarchio
- Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 6, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Silvia Zanettini
- due2lab s.r.l., Via Paolo Borsellino 2, Scandiano, Reggio Emilia 42019, Italy
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11
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Buttacavoli A, Principato F, Gerardi G, Bettelli M, Sarzi Amadè N, Zappettini A, Seller P, Veale MC, Fox O, Sawhney K, Abbene L. Room-temperature performance of 3 mm-thick cadmium-zinc-telluride pixel detectors with sub-millimetre pixelization. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2020; 27:1180-1189. [PMID: 32876592 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577520008942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT) pixel detectors represent a consolidated choice for the development of room-temperature spectroscopic X-ray imagers, finding important applications in medical imaging, often as detection modules of a variety of new SPECT and CT systems. Detectors with 3-5 mm thicknesses are able to efficiently detect X-rays up to 140 keV giving reasonable room-temperature energy resolution. In this work, the room-temperature performance of 3 mm-thick CZT pixel detectors, recently developed at IMEM/CNR of Parma (Italy), is presented. Sub-millimetre detector arrays with pixel pitch less than 500 µm were fabricated. The detectors are characterized by good room-temperature performance even at high bias voltage operation (6000 V cm-1), with energy resolutions (FWHM) of 3% (1.8 keV) and 1.6% (2 keV) at 59.5 keV and 122.1 keV, respectively. Charge-sharing investigations were performed with both uncollimated and collimated synchrotron X-ray beams with particular attention to recovering the charge losses at the inter-pixel gap region. High rate measurements demonstrated the absence of high-flux radiation-induced polarization phenomena up to 25 × 106 photons mm-2 s-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Buttacavoli
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC) - Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Fabio Principato
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC) - Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC) - Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Paul Seller
- Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew C Veale
- Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Fox
- B16 Beamline, Diamond Light Source, Fermi Avenue, Didcot, United Kingdom
| | - Kawal Sawhney
- Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
| | - Leonardo Abbene
- Department of Physics and Chemistry (DiFC) - Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
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12
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Abbene L, Principato F, Gerardi G, Buttacavoli A, Cascio D, Bettelli M, Amadè NS, Seller P, Veale MC, Fox O, Sawhney K, Zanettini S, Tomarchio E, Zappettini A. Room-temperature X-ray response of cadmium-zinc-telluride pixel detectors grown by the vertical Bridgman technique. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2020; 27:319-328. [PMID: 32153270 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577519015996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the spectroscopic performances of new cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT) pixel detectors recently developed at IMEM-CNR of Parma (Italy) are presented. Sub-millimetre arrays with pixel pitch less than 500 µm, based on boron oxide encapsulated vertical Bridgman grown CZT crystals, were fabricated. Excellent room-temperature performance characterizes the detectors even at high-bias-voltage operation (9000 V cm-1), with energy resolutions (FWHM) of 4% (0.9 keV), 1.7% (1 keV) and 1.3% (1.6 keV) at 22.1, 59.5 and 122.1 keV, respectively. Charge-sharing investigations were performed with both uncollimated and collimated synchrotron X-ray beams with particular attention to the mitigation of the charge losses at the inter-pixel gap region. High-rate measurements demonstrated the absence of high-flux radiation-induced polarization phenomena up to 2 × 106 photons mm-2 s-1. These activities are in the framework of an international collaboration on the development of energy-resolved photon-counting systems for high-flux energy-resolved X-ray imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Abbene
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Fabio Principato
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Buttacavoli
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Donato Cascio
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica (DiFC), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | - Paul Seller
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Chilton, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Matthew C Veale
- Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Chilton, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Oliver Fox
- B16 Beamline, Diamond Light Source, Fermi Avenue, Didcot, UK
| | - Kawal Sawhney
- B16 Beamline, Diamond Light Source, Fermi Avenue, Didcot, UK
| | - Silvia Zanettini
- due2lab s.r.l., Via Paolo Borsellino 2, Scandiano, 42019 Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Elio Tomarchio
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 7, 90128 Palermo, Italy
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13
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Spectral Signatures of X-ray Scatter Using Energy-Resolving Photon-Counting Detectors. SENSORS 2019; 19:s19225022. [PMID: 31752093 PMCID: PMC6891402 DOI: 10.3390/s19225022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Energy-resolving photon-counting detectors (PCDs) separate photons from a polychromatic X-ray source into a number of separate energy bins. This spectral information from PCDs would allow advancements in X-ray imaging, such as improving image contrast, quantitative imaging, and material identification and characterization. However, aspects like detector spectral distortions and scattered photons from the object can impede these advantages if left unaccounted for. Scattered X-ray photons act as noise in an image and reduce image contrast, thereby significantly hindering PCD utility. In this paper, we explore and outline several important characteristics of spectral X-ray scatter with examples of soft-material imaging (such as cancer imaging in mammography or explosives detection in airport security). Our results showed critical spectral signatures of scattered photons that depend on a few adjustable experimental factors. Additionally, energy bins over a large portion of the spectrum exhibit lower scatter-to-primary ratio in comparison to what would be expected when using a conventional energy-integrating detector. These important findings allow flexible choice of scatter-correction methods and energy-bin utilization when using PCDs. Our findings also propel the development of efficient spectral X-ray scatter correction methods for a wide range of PCD-based applications.
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14
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Abbene L, Gerardi G, Principato F, Bettelli M, Seller P, Veale MC, Fox O, Sawhney K, Zambelli N, Benassi G, Zappettini A. Dual-polarity pulse processing and analysis for charge-loss correction in cadmium-zinc-telluride pixel detectors. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2018; 25:1078-1092. [PMID: 29979169 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577518006422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Charge losses at the inter-pixel gap are typical drawbacks in cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT) pixel detectors. In this work, an original technique able to correct charge losses occurring after the application of charge-sharing addition (CSA) is presented. The method, exploiting the strong relation between the energy after CSA and the beam position at the inter-pixel gap, allows the recovery of charge losses and improvements in energy resolution. Sub-millimetre CZT pixel detectors were investigated with both uncollimated radiation sources and collimated synchrotron X-rays, at energies below and above the K-shell absorption energy of the CZT material. The detectors are DC coupled to fast and low-noise charge-sensitive preamplifiers (PIXIE ASIC) and followed by a 16-channel digital readout electronics, performing multi-parameter analysis (event arrival time, pulse shape, pulse height). Induced-charge pulses with negative polarity were also observed in the waveforms from the charge-sensitive preamplifiers (CSPs) at energies >60 keV. The shape and the height of these pulses were analysed, and their role in the mitigation of charge losses in CZT pixel detectors. These activities are in the framework of an international collaboration on the development of energy-resolved photon-counting systems for spectroscopic X-ray imaging (5-140 keV).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Abbene
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Gaetano Gerardi
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Fabio Principato
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 18, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | | | - Paul Seller
- Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Matthew C Veale
- Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Oliver Fox
- B16 Beamline, Diamond Light Source, Fermi Avenue, Didcot, UK
| | - Kawal Sawhney
- B16 Beamline, Diamond Light Source, Fermi Avenue, Didcot, UK
| | - Nicola Zambelli
- due2lab s.r.l., Via Paolo Borsellino 2, Scandiano, Reggio Emilia 42019, Italy
| | - Giacomo Benassi
- due2lab s.r.l., Via Paolo Borsellino 2, Scandiano, Reggio Emilia 42019, Italy
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