The repatriation process – a realistic approach

Reverse culture shock, distress symptoms and psychological well-being of fresh foreign degree holders in Pakistan

This study explored to what extent does reverse culture shock predict the level of anxiety, depression, and psychological well-being among fresh foreign degree holders in Pakistan, in addition to finding out the relationship between the study variables. Participants consisted of 124 fresh foreign degree holders (109 men and 15 women) who were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Reverse Culture Shock Scale, Major Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, and WHO-5 Well-being Index were used to measure study variables. Results show that reverse culture shock is a strong predictor of psychological well-being explaining 23% variance in well-being scores of fresh foreign degree holders. As hypothesized, it has positive associations with distress symptoms including anxiety and depression, whereas, a negative correlation was found with psychological well-being and the age of fresh foreign degree holders. However, contrary to the hypothesis, reverse culture shock has no association with time passed since arrival back home and duration of stay abroad.

Repatriation of international assignees

Purpose

Repatriation continues to be a current challenge for many international firms. While this topic has received only limited attention in literature in the past, it has aroused an increased academic interest since the 2000s. Until now, however, thorough analyses of advancements in this field, which go beyond a pure content-related review, are still scarce in research. To address this gap, this study provides a systematic and comprehensive literature review of repatriation from an ecological systems perspective. The purpose of this paper is threefold: to analyze where and when repatriation research has been published, what aspects (e.g. topics, theories, and contexts) have been considered in the repatriation literature, and how the research has been conducted (e.g. employed methodologies). Based on the findings implications for future research are developed.

Design/methodology/approach

This study is based on a systematic literature review of 96 peer-reviewed articles from 1973 to 2016.

Findings

The results of the study reveal that repatriation has found its way into journals of different disciplines. By employing an ecological systems theoretical perspective, the study shows that research on repatriation covers a broad set of ecological systems to explain repatriation outcomes. Quantitative approaches are fairly prominent in repatriation research, whereas the use of qualitative approaches has increased lately. Mixed-methods approaches, however, are still scarce in the repatriation literature. Moreover, the results outline that the majority of scholars collected data on the individual level. With regard to methodological rigor (both design and analysis), a steady use of linear regression modeling in quantitative articles was found, whereas more sophisticated methodological approaches such as structural equation modeling and longitudinal studies have only recently found their way into repatriation research. Finally, by considering that the expatriate literature addresses a variety of types of expatriation, this study highlights that research on repatriation should differentiate more thoroughly between types of repatriates to provide target-group-oriented recommendations and to deepen the understanding of the repatriation phenomenon.

Originality/value

This study contributes to the repatriation research in several ways. First, it provides a systematic analysis of the repatriation literature from an ecological systems theoretical lens. By combining this content-related analysis with an investigation of methodological issues, the study outlines which ecological systems have been covered in the literature on repatriation, where the strengths and weaknesses of this literature stream lay, and in which direction future avenues of research should move. Moreover, the study highlights which methodological shortcomings are still existent in the repatriation literature and shows that a differentiated viewpoint on repatriates like in the expatriation literature is still in an embryonic stage in repatriation research. Finally, it contributes to the repatriation research by deducing valuable recommendations for future research.

Repatriation and (perceived) organisational support (POS)

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore the role of and interaction between (potential) repatriation supporters to develop understanding of how this affects the repatriate experience.

Design/methodology/approach

A (single) case study strategy was employed, using a multiple stakeholder approach, involving 21 in-depth interviews in a large UK-based institution with repatriates, home and host HR managers, international human resource (IHR) practitioners and line managers from both home and host locations.

Findings

Although line managers, senior managers, family members and third party providers (e.g. relocation agencies, tax advisors) are important for repatriation support, the case study evidence highlights that HR professionals are mainly responsible for the quality of the support delivered by other repatriation supporters. Inadequate support from the headquarters IHR department caused by a lack and unclear information about repatriation procedures and related responsibilities results in insufficient support for home and host HR managers. This negatively impacts repatriates line managers (perceptions of) HR support. Weaknesses in the support chain (headquarter IHR, home and host HR and line managers) are responsible for repatriates (perceived) limited or non-support.

Research limitations/implications

The small size of our sample, the single case study design and the method precludes generalisation of the findings. However, the authors’ “look inside” increased the understanding of repatriation support and in particular the support quality. By linking this information to the knowledge of previous studies on organisational support and the devolution of human resource management, the authors are able to identify several topics future studies in the field of repatriation management.

Practical implications

IHRM policies have to reflect the role of multiple stakeholders including home and host line managers and HR professionals as well as third party providers and assign clear lines of responsibility to provide a transparent and consistent experience. Repatriates family has to be acknowledged as a stakeholder that has a major influence on repatriation success and failure. Excluding partners and children issues from international career policies has to be considered as a serious HR shortcoming. Second, ensuring timely information regarding return positions. Providing debriefing interviews upon repatriation can help to identify future roles within the organisation. Equally important is exit interviews to explore whether the person has completed an assignment within the previous 24 months and whether this experience has contributed to their decision to leave the organisation. Opportunities to ensure repatriates are being considered for positions as part of the talent pool is crucial. Finally, the authors emphasise the need to acknowledge that third party vendors are part of the repatriation process and must be considered in terms of (perceived) organisational support.

Originality/value

This is one of the first studies that highlights the role and interaction of (potential) repatriation supporters. Specifically, this study contributes to addressing three knowledge gaps: it identifies a lack of communication among HR professionals and between them and line managers as a potential source of insufficient organisational support; the findings highlight HR professionals responsibility for supporting line managers and other repatriation supporters in operational repatriation management; and finally, the results support the assumption that HR professionals and line managers own (non-)experience with working abroad might affect the quality of support policies and practices for repatriates.

How and why does expatriation management influence expatriates’ employability?

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to offer a timely assessment of the influence of human resource (HR) processes and policies on expatriates’ employability, using a Dutch international engineering firm as the study setting.

Design/methodology/approach

The qualitative study, based on in-depth interviews with 15 respondents in various roles, such as expatriates, repatriates, HR managers and line managers, is complemented by a document analysis of HR policy reports about expatriation processes.

Findings

Expatriation management influences the internal employability of engineering expatriates, yet most HR policies related to expatriation work are counterproductive in terms of in-company employability of expatriates.

Research limitations/implications

Further research could extend this single case study by differentiating engineering from management functions and addressing employability implications for other assignments and other forms of expatriation. Comparisons are also possible across various stakeholders with regard to social support.

Practical implications

HR management can follow several prescriptions revealed by this study to increase expatriates’ employability within the organization.

Originality/value

This study is among the first to relate expatriation processes to the dimensions of employability.

Using HRD to Support Repatriates

A systematic review of repatriation literature in human resource development (HRD) journals reveals common themes of low motivation to repatriate among expatriates and high rates of repatriation failure in organizations. In addition, there is a gap in the published research regarding organization development (OD), suggesting that there is a need to look more closely at managing the changes for individuals, teams, and organizations associated with repatriation. In this article, we addressed this literature gap by proposing a framework for creating an OD strategy for repatriation. This framework is useful for HRD instructors, trainers, and other practitioners who are tasked with creating and instructing others on how to create an OD strategy for repatriation. Such a strategy could help improve repatriation motivation and decrease repatriation failure, ultimately improving organizational performance. The proposed framework was adapted from a positive model of planned change and focuses on discovering, examining, and capitalizing on previous organizational successes to positively impact the repatriation process.

Antecedent factors for success in international assignments: the case of expatriates in Peru

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to explore the relative most important antecedent factors related to success in international assignment (IA) in specific context such as Peru. It reviews the full range of individual, organizational and contextual factors associated with success in IA as well as discusses the importance of context in expatriate research. Combined with limited interviews, synthesis is offered and the most relevant determinant factors are identified.

Design/methodology/approach

– This is a qualitative approach based on semi-structured interviews with 45 participants who currently hold IA positions or have broad experience in overseas positions. The interviews were conducted in the English and Spanish languages. A priori coding system classification technique based on a content analysis methodology was administrated for the purpose of analyzing and codifying the interviews.

Findings

– The findings reveal that a combination of individual, organizational and contextual antecedent factors are relevant for explaining success in IA. However, only nine of the 32 factors were found to be the most determinant to success. In particular, cross-cultural competencies, spouse adjustment, motivational issues, time on assignment, emotional competencies, previous international experience, language fluency and social relational skills, as well as contextual cultural differences and organizational recruitment and selection practices, were found to be the most associated to success in IA. The relative importance of the antecedents are discussed related to the context.

Research limitations/implications

– Because of the nature of qualitative design, a single factor may affect the interpretation and generalization of the findings. In addition, the ample and broad conceptualizations and definitions of the antecedent factors examined from different viewpoints may cause theoretical overlapping and cross-over definition biases, which may result in misleading findings. Therefore, the authors encourage future research to continue examining the full range of antecedent factors employing different methodological approaches by integrating context in a more systematic manner.

Practical implications

– The paper reviews the implications for IA selection design and process implementation, cross-cultural training and development.

Originality/value

– To begin with, this paper fills a need to study the antecedents of IA success and determine their relevance. In particular, and to the best of the knowledge, this is one of the few studies that include multi-level perspective: individual, organizational and contextual factors. This comprehensive approach aids in better understanding of the role and relevance of the respective antecedent factors that leads to success in IA with an aim to integrate context in the equation. Second, the sample consists of expatriates in particularly in Peru which gives information about adjustment of expatriates in Peru.

New approaches on repatriation research

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to analyze repatriation as an active actor on his/her return and not just as a passive receiver of organizational human resource management practices. Traditionally, literature has been focused on investigating the impact of organizational practices and support on repatriation, but new studies suggest that this approach is insufficient. According to these studies, individual and contextual influences are also important on repatriation and new studies are needed to measure its impact.

Design/methodology/approach

– This article is the base of future studies to analyze the impact of both approaches at once.

Findings

– The paper departs from recent literature in the field, to develop a series of research propositions.

Research limitations/implications

– The implications of this study include to contribute to the knowledge and future research on the expatriation process, studying the adaptation, performance, etc. of the expatriate during the international mission and particularly the last part of the process, repatriation, which has not received so much attention.

Practical implications

– This paper highlights that mismanagement of repatriation could lead to turnover of these valuable professionals or to a non-satisfactory reinstatement or even to inefficiency. On the other hand, the perception that repatriation is not well managed and that it does not lead to an advance for the employee could discourage future expatriates to accept international missions, which could even slow down the international progress of the company.

Originality/value

– The integration of the traditional and the emerging perspectives of repatriation process.

20 Jahre Rückanpassungsforschung – eine Metaanalyse

Der Horizont der Reintegrationsforschung wird in jüngerer Zeit stark erweitert. Während frühere Arbeiten vor allem die Rückanpassung untersuchten, heben neuere Arbeiten andere Facetten des Karriereerfolgs hervor. An diesem Wendepunkt ist eine Konsolidierung der zwanzigjährigen Rückanpassungsforschung angebracht. Der Artikel legt die erste Metaanalyse der Rückanpassung vor und bereinigt die empirischen Primärstudien um Stichprobenfehler und Messfehler. Es bestätigen sich hohe Korrelationen zwischen der Arbeitsrückanpassung und vier zentralen Variablen: (1) Klarheit der Reintegrationsprogramme und -prozesse, (2) Rollenklarheit, (3) Rollenbezogene Entscheidungsfreiheit und (4) Rollenkonflikte. Für die Unternehmenspraxis zeigen die Ergebnisse Faktoren auf, mit denen Unternehmen die Rückanpassung ihrer Repatriates an das Heimatland unterstützen können. Für die Personal- und Managementforschung legt die Metaanalyse nahe, den empirischen Fokus auf andere Konstrukte des Reintegrationserfolgs zu verlagern.