Expatriate management in hostile environments from a multi-stakeholder perspective – a systematic review

Reintegration of crisis services employees: a systematic literature review

Purpose

Crisis services personnel are frequently deployed around the globe under highly demanding conditions. This raises the need to better understand the deployment process and more especially, sustainable reintegration after deployment. Despite recent research efforts, the study of the post-deployment stage, more specifically the reintegration process, remains fragmented and limited. To address these limitations, this review aims at (1) describing how reintegration is conceptualised and measured in the existing literature, (2) identifying what dimensions are associated with the reintegration process and (3) identifying what we know about the process of reintegration in terms of timing and phases.

Design/methodology/approach

Following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) protocol, the authors identified 5,859 documents across several scientific databases published between 1995 and 2021. Based on predefined eligibility criteria, 104 documents were yielded.

Findings

Research has primarily focused on descriptive studies of negative individual and interpersonal outcomes after deployment. However, this review indicates that reintegration is dynamic, multi-sector, multidimensional and dual. Each of its phases and dimensions is associated with distinct challenges.

Originality/value

To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first research that investigates reintegration among different crisis services and provides an integrative social-ecological framework that identifies the different dimensions and challenges of this process.

An examination of the insulation of global worker communities for political reasons: the case of the J-1 Visa in the United States

Purpose

The insulation of globally mobile workers into communities is often influenced by political considerations within the host country. Most studies examining this area have focused on how expatriates and globally mobile workers seclude themselves into insulated communities when working abroad. This perspective does not take into consideration political and societal factors that often pressure globally mobile workers into secluded communities composed of people similar to themselves. This study examines how host-country political imperatives can help create and maintain insulated communities of foreign workers.

Design/methodology/approach

This study is based on a case study methodology that examines the J-1 Visa program in the United States and how it has, in many instances, evolved into a de facto guest worker program that secludes foreign workers into insulated communities. The case study includes interviews with five J-1 administrators at sponsoring organizations that employ J-1 recipients.

Findings

This study finds that political pressures do have an impact on the insulation of J-1 recipients into secluded communities in the United States. This is largely accomplished through the legal requirements of the program, pressure from sponsoring employers on the government and the significant political and economic ties that the United States maintains with the home countries of J-1 recipients.

Originality/value

This is one of the few studies to examine insulated communities of globally mobile workers from a political perspective. It is exploratory in nature and recommends that further studies be conducted.

Expatriates’ Embeddedness and Host Country Withdrawal Intention: A Social Exchange Perspective

In this study, we conceptualize the thus far little explored relationship between expatriate and host country as a form of social exchange governed by the norm of reciprocity. Drawing from social exchange theory and our analysis of 451 self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) living and working in the United Arab Emirates, we examine whether the degree of SIEs’ career and community embeddedness explains their host country withdrawal intention via enhanced perceived institutional trust and a more tolerant attitude toward workplace discrimination. Our results provide general support for our theoretical model and most of our hypotheses. In this way, our article makes three contributions. First, it suggests a novel way to conceptualize the relationship between SIEs and host country as a form of social exchange. Second, it differentiates between two dimensions of embeddedness and explicates how the two contribute to SIEs’ intentions to stay in the host country. Finally, the analysis theorizes and empirically tests two previously little explored mechanisms of enhanced institutional trust and a more tolerant attitude toward workplace discrimination through which SIEs’ host country embeddedness influences their host country withdrawal intentions.

Expatriates on the run: The psychological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on expatriates' host country withdrawal intentions

Extant research on expatriation in high-stress environments where stress is caused by ongoing and unexpected natural crises remains limited. Drawing on stress theory, in this study, we develop a model to examine the stress-inducing effects of intra-family concerns and workplace discrimination on the intentions to leave the host country among expatriates in the high-stress environment of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. We also explore whether gender and the level of work adjustment moderate the propensity of intra-family health concerns and workplace discrimination to induce psychological stress. Based on our analysis of 381 expatriates living and working in the United Arab Emirates, we find the model to be generally supported. We also reveal an intriguing moderating effect of work adjustment on the relationship between intra-family health concerns and psychological stress. Overall, the analysis is among the first ones to shed light on the role of natural crises' stressors in defining expatriate outcomes.

How do low-status expatriates deal with crises? Stress, external support and personal coping strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic

Purpose

Low-status expatriates (LSEs), a highly vulnerable group, have been significantly affected by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. This study explores the stressors that continue to impact LSEs in Germany and their access to support during the pandemic.

Design/methodology/approach

An interpretivist, qualitative research approach was employed. The authors utilised a multi-level data collection strategy that combined interview and questionnaire data from 16 expatriates and 16 social actors. The data were analysed using a directed content analysis method.

Findings

LSEs experienced high levels of stress that were further exacerbated by the introduction of COVID-19 control measures that were intended to slow the spread of the virus. LSEs are particularly vulnerable due to their overrepresentation in precarious professions and the associated job insecurity. Critically, external support from employers and social actors is generally lacking, leaving LSEs to rely on their own personal coping strategies in difficult times.

Research limitations/implications

The earlier Expatriate crisis Framework highlights the importance of external support for expatriates. However, this framework does not sufficiently account for personal coping strategies that are particularly important for individuals that cannot access such external support (e.g. LSEs). Herein, the authors offer a revised framework that is more applicable to LSEs.

Practical implications

Current practices are problematic, necessitating policy changes at both governmental and organisational levels.

Originality/value

This study provides unique insights into the ways in which the pandemic has affected the already precarious position of LSEs and identifies the importance of personal coping strategies in the absence of external sources of support.

What do we know about diversity, intersectionality and inclusion in organisationally-assigned expatriation? A review of relocation management company/consultancy practitioner research

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to report on trends in the deployment of minority expatriates, review organisational interventions to increase expatriate diversity and to consider the challenges facing employers in widening expatriate diversity through a review of practitioner publications published by relocation management companies/consultancies.

Design/methodology/approach

A review of 109 practitioner publications on organisational international assignment policy and practice was conducted to identify trends across three decades in minority expatriation and employer interventions to widen expatriate diversity.

Findings

Practitioner publications record percentage female expatriate participation and expatriate age profiles. While expatriate diversity challenges are reported, employer interventions focus on supporting women and LGBTQ+ assignees but with little detail on their outcomes. There is little emphasis on ethnicity/race, religion, disability, pregnancy/maternity, intersectionality of diversity characteristics and inclusion.

Research limitations/implications

Practitioner publications consulted were primarily Western-focused, with access to a “complete” publications record precluded. Academic research that compares employer policy on diversity interventions with how it is implemented is needed.

Practical implications

A stronger focus on supporting the full range of expatriate diversity attributes and intersectionality is required, explaining how challenges have been addressed and inclusion achieved.

Social implications

Analysis of employer interventions could assist organisations to widen expatriate diversity and inclusion, and minorities to access international careers.

Originality/value

This review of practitioner data reveals trends in the deployment of minority expatriates, interventions taken by employers and challenges they perceive in widening expatriate diversity, providing a unique perspective and enriching our understanding of academic expatriate diversity research. Path-dependent organisational action may hinder employers' future focus on diversity, inclusion and intersectionality.

COVID-19 and self-initiated expatriate health workers: Spanish nurses in Germany

Purpose

Given that the incidence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) varies greatly between countries, it becomes relevant to explore self-initiated expatriate (SIE) health workers' perceptions of home vs host country safety during a global pandemic. Thus, the paper aims to study the effects of COVID-19 on the expatriation experience of Spanish SIE nurses in Germany, focussing on perceptions of home and host country safety as push/pull forces on their intentions to repatriate or stay.

Design/methodology/approach

Semi-structured interviews (n = 10) were conducted with Spanish SIE nurses in Germany between April/June 2020 followed by instant messaging interactions with the same participants in October/November 2020. Data analysis was assisted by NVivo software.

Findings

Overloaded by information from social networks about the impact of COVID-19 in Spain compared with the situation in Germany, Spanish SIE nurses had exacerbated feelings of stress, and some reported having experienced guilt for not being in their home country. Nevertheless, the contrasting impact and management of the crisis and its relative effect on health workers and the larger society in Spain and Germany reinforced the nurses' intention to stay in Germany.

Research limitations/implications

The research offers insights to organisations and public authorities involved with providing support to SIEs during crises, highlighting the implications of SIEs' social networks and dual allegiance to home and host countries during a global health emergency.

Originality/value

The study contributes to the growing literature on SIEs, whilst adding to the research on expatriates' well-being and safety during crises.

Sailing through the COVID-19 pandemic: managing expatriates' psychological well-being and performance during natural crises

Purpose

The unprecedented challenges brought about by the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic affected people's lives worldwide. The purpose of this study is to propose a conceptual model to explain how natural crisis events, such as COVID-19, cause stress and influence the psychological well-being (PWB) and performance of expatriates.

Design/methodology/approach

The model presented in this conceptual paper is based on Bader and Berg's (2014) two-stage stress emergence and outcome model developed to study expatriates' performance in terrorism-endangered countries. The authors apply their model to natural crisis events and provide propositions to explain the postulated relationships.

Findings

The proposed model delineates the stressors that emerge from psychological and situational factors, and how they impact the PWB and performance of expatriates. The article emphasizes how resilience, social network, and support from the organization, supervisor, and family can help mitigate the adverse effects of stress on the PWB of expatriates. Furthermore, keeping in mind the prevailing situations due to COVID-19, the authors shed light on the indispensability of virtual collaboration in ameliorating expatriates' performance in challenging times.

Practical implications

Implications are discussed for organizations in devising plans and strategies to deal with unforeseen crisis events.

Originality/value

This study extends the expatriation literature to the events of natural crisis by incorporating the stress emergence-outcome model. In doing so, the authors identify the factors relevant to natural crises and apply them to understand how they could impact expatriates in such times.

International rotational assignments: women's challenge to occupational gender segregation

Purpose

The purpose of this exploratory research is to understand how women have accessed male-dominated oil and gas international rotational assignments and why they believe these roles to be professionally worthwhile.

Design/methodology/approach

This cross-sectional qualitative study is based on semi-structured interviews and correspondence with female international rotational assignees, and interviews with HR professionals involved in selection and deployment for such assignments.

Findings

HR personnel stereotype women as unsuitable for international rotational assignments. Women must be exceptionally determined and/or circumvent selection processes to access such roles. Women value the professional and personal development gained from international rotational assignments which helps them widen their occupational skills capacity.

Research limitations/implications

To extend these findings, larger samples of female international rotational assignees and research in a wider range of industries are required. Longitudinal studies could further our understanding of women’s career progression building upon their international rotational assignment experience.

Practical implications

To reduce stereotyping of women's perceived unsuitability, greater understanding of international rotational assignment roles/environments is required by managers involved in selection. Transparent selection processes are required to support diversity. Greater interest in the work performed by international rotational assignees will raise their profile and assist with wider labour market opportunities.

Social implications

Organisational representatives unintentionally reinforce occupational segregation by stereotyping women as less appropriate workers than men for international rotational assignments.

Originality/value

This research hears women's voices as they begin to make inroads into the masculine world of oil and gas international rotational assignments. Research propositions and recommendations for practice are suggested to assist in breaking down male monopoly in this context.