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Ramirez-Vazquez R, Escobar I, Vandenbosch GAE, Arribas E. Personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A comparative analysis of international, national, and regional guidelines. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 246:118124. [PMID: 38199478 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
A worldwide overview and analysis for the existing limits of human exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) is given in this paper. These reference levels have been established by different national and even regional governments, which can be based on the guidelines provided by the recommendations of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and even in the United States of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), as well as, are based on the so-called precautionary principle. Explicit reference is made to the exposure limits adopted in countries or regions, such as Canada, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, China, Russia, France, and regions of Belgium (Brussels, Flanders, Wallonia), where the limits are much lower than the international standards. The limits are compared to a selected set of in-situ measurements. This clearly shows that the measured values are typically very small compared to the international standards but could be somewhat higher compared to the reduced limits. Based on this observation and the reasonable assumption that the sensitivity of people to Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) is the same everywhere (whole-body), we propose the idea to establish a worldwide reference limit for the general public, thus applicable in all countries, if the ICNIRP considers it appropriate. Research must continue to generate measurement data that demonstrate the levels of exposure to which we are really exposed, and with this, provide arguments to the organizations that established the guidelines, especially the ICNIRP, to evaluate whether the current limits are too much. High and can be modified when considered pertinent. To the best of our knowledge, at no time has the reference level for the general public been exceeded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ramirez-Vazquez
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Polytechnic School of Cuenca, University Campus s/n, 16071, Cuenca, Spain; MORFEO Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain; ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Isabel Escobar
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain; MORFEO Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
| | - Guy A E Vandenbosch
- ESAT-WaveCoRE, Dep. of Electrical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10, Box 2444, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Enrique Arribas
- University of Castilla-La Mancha, Applied Physics Department, Faculty of Computer Science Engineering, Avda. de España s/n, University Campus, 02071, Albacete, Spain; MORFEO Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain.
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Aerts S, Calderon C, Valič B, Maslanyj M, Addison D, Mee T, Goiceanu C, Verloock L, Van den Bossche M, Gajšek P, Vermeulen R, Röösli M, Cardis E, Martens L, Joseph W. Measurements of intermediate-frequency electric and magnetic fields in households. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2017; 154:160-170. [PMID: 28086101 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Historically, assessment of human exposure to electric and magnetic fields has focused on the extremely-low-frequency (ELF) and radiofrequency (RF) ranges. However, research on the typically emitted fields in the intermediate-frequency (IF) range (300Hz to 1MHz) as well as potential effects of IF fields on the human body remains limited, although the range of household appliances with electrical components working in the IF range has grown significantly (e.g., induction cookers and compact fluorescent lighting). In this study, an extensive measurement survey was performed on the levels of electric and magnetic fields in the IF range typically present in residences as well as emitted by a wide range of household appliances under real-life circumstances. Using spot measurements, residential IF field levels were found to be generally low, while the use of certain appliances at close distance (20cm) may result in a relatively high exposure. Overall, appliance emissions contained either harmonic signals, with fundamental frequencies between 6kHz and 300kHz, which were sometimes accompanied by regions in the IF spectrum of rather noisy, elevated field strengths, or much more capricious spectra, dominated by 50Hz harmonics emanating far in the IF domain. The maximum peak field strengths recorded at 20cm were 41.5V/m and 2.7A/m, both from induction cookers. Finally, none of the appliance emissions in the IF range exceeded the exposure summation rules recommended by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection guidelines and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 62233) standard at 20cm and beyond (maximum exposure quotients EQE 1.0 and EQH 0.13).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Aerts
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, iGent, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Carolina Calderon
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Blaž Valič
- Institute of Non-Ionizing Radiation (INIS), Pohorskega bataljona 215, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Myron Maslanyj
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Darren Addison
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Terry Mee
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Cristian Goiceanu
- Centre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health England, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom
| | - Leen Verloock
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, iGent, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Matthias Van den Bossche
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, iGent, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter Gajšek
- Institute of Non-Ionizing Radiation (INIS), Pohorskega bataljona 215, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3508 Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Röösli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Socinstrasse 57, P.O. Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Elisabeth Cardis
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal) and Municipal Institute of Medical Research (IMIM-Hospital del Mar), Doctor Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, iGent, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/iMinds, iGent, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 15, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
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Joseph W, Vermeeren G, Verloock L, Goeminne F. In situ magnetic field exposure and ICNIRP-based safety distances for electronic article surveillance systems. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2012; 148:420-427. [PMID: 21613266 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncr206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Electromagnetic radiation of electronic article surveillance (EAS) systems was investigated in situ for both the detection gate panels and the activators and deactivators. 'Safety distances' for the general public, defined as the distances outside which the magnetic field levels of the EAS systems do not exceed the The International Commission on Non-ionising Radiation Protection reference levels, were determined. Additionally, temporal and frequency behaviour, and signal waveforms were investigated. For the detection gates, the spatially averaged fields exceeded the reference levels for five of the six investigated systems. For the (de)activators, the spatially averaged fields did not exceed the reference levels. Maximal fields up to 148.0 A m(-1) were measured from 20 cm on. The exposure ratios varied from 8 to 13 for EM, from 6 to 8 for AM and from 0.008 to 1.8 for RF systems. Safety distances were maximally 111 cm for EM, 77 cm for AM and 35 cm for RF systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Ghent University/IBBT, Gaston Crommenlaan 8, B-9050 Ghent, Belgium.
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Martínez-Búrdalo M, Sanchis A, Martín A, Villar R. Comparison of SAR and induced current densities in adults and children exposed to electromagnetic fields from electronic article surveillance devices. Phys Med Biol 2010; 55:1041-55. [DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/55/4/009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Wu D, Qiang R, Chen J, Seidman S, Witters D, Kainz W. Possible overexposure of pregnant women to emissions from a walk through metal detector. Phys Med Biol 2007; 52:5735-48. [PMID: 17881797 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/52/19/001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a systematic procedure to evaluate the induced current densities and electric fields due to walk-through metal detector (WTMD) exposure. This procedure is then used to assess the exposure of nine pregnant women models exposed to one WTMD model. First, we measured the magnetic field generated by the WTMD, then we extracted the equivalent current source to represent the WTMD emissions and finally we calculated the induced current densities and electric fields using the impedance method. The WTMD emissions and the induced fields in the pregnant women and fetus models are then compared to the ICNIRP Guidelines and the IEEE C95.6 exposure safety standard. The results prove the consistency between maximum permissible exposure (MPE) levels and basic restrictions for the ICNIRP Guidelines and IEEE C95.6. We also found that this particular WTMD complies with the ICNIRP basic restrictions for month 1-5 models, but leads to both fetus and pregnant women overexposure for month 6-9 models. The IEEE C95.6 restrictions (MPEs and basic restrictions) are not exceeded. The fetus overexposure of this particular WTMD calls for carefully conducted safety evaluations of security systems before they are deployed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagang Wu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
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Olree KS, Horch KW. Assessing the numerical accuracy of the impedance method. Bioelectromagnetics 2007; 28:454-62. [PMID: 17486604 DOI: 10.1002/bem.20328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The impedance method has been used extensively to calculate induced electric fields and currents in tissue as a result of applied electromagnetic fields. However, there has previously been no known method for an a priori assessment of the numerical accuracy of the results found by this method. Here, we present a method which permits an a priori assessment of the numerical accuracy of the impedance method applied to physiologically meaningful problems in bioengineering. The assessment method relies on estimating the condition number associated with the impedance matrix for problems with varying shapes, sizes, conductivities, anisotropies, and implementation strategies. Equations have been provided which predict the number of significant figures lost due to poor matrix conditioning as a function of these variables. The results show that, for problems of moderate size and uncomplicated geometry, applied fields should be measured or calculated accurately to at least five or six significant figures. As resolutions are increased and material properties are more widely divergent even more significant figures are needed. The equations provided here should ensure that solutions found from the impedance method are calculated accurately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth S Olree
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA.
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Nadeem M, Hamnerius Y, Mild KH, Persson M. Magnetic field from spot welding equipment?is the basic restriction exceeded? Bioelectromagnetics 2004; 25:278-84. [PMID: 15114637 DOI: 10.1002/bem.10197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
A point measurement of the magnetic field (MF) near a typical spot welding machine showed that the magnetic flux density was above the ICNIRP reference level. To investigate if the basic restrictions were exceeded, the induced body currents in a full 3D human model were calculated. It was found that at an operator position of 34 cm away from the machine the maximum induced current density was below the ICNIRP basic restriction. But if the operator was closer to the machine, the basic restriction was exceeded. An important finding of the present article is that the basic restriction can be exceeded although the MF spatially averaged over the whole body is well below the reference level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Nadeem
- Department of Electromagnetics, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden.
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Liu F, Xia L, Crozier S. Influence of magnetically-induced E-fields on cardiac electric activity during MRI: A modeling study. Magn Reson Med 2003; 50:1180-8. [PMID: 14648565 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.10639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In modern magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), patients are exposed to strong, time-varying gradient magnetic fields that may be able to induce electric fields (E-fields)/currents in tissues approaching the level of physiological significance. In this work we present theoretical investigations into induced E-fields in the thorax, and evaluate their potential influence on cardiac electric activity under the assumption that the sites of maximum E-field correspond to the myocardial stimulation threshold (an abnormal circumstance). Whole-body cylindrical and planar gradient coils were included in the model. The calculations of the induced fields are based on an efficient, quasi-static, finite-difference scheme and an anatomically realistic, whole-body model. The potential for cardiac stimulation was evaluated using an electrical model of the heart. Twelve-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) signals were simulated and inspected for arrhythmias caused by the applied fields for both healthy and diseased hearts. The simulations show that the shape of the thorax and the conductive paths significantly influence induced E-fields. In healthy patients, these fields are not sufficient to elicit serious arrhythmias with the use of contemporary gradient sets. However, raising the strength and number of repeated switching episodes of gradients, as is certainly possible in local chest gradient sets, could expose patients to increased risk. For patients with cardiac disease, the risk factors are elevated. By the use of this model, the sensitivity of cardiac pathologies, such as abnormal conductive pathways, to the induced fields generated by an MRI sequence can be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Liu
- School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Australia
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