Development of Dual-Frequency Oblong-Shaped-Focused Transducers for Intravascular Ultrasound Tissue Harmonic Imaging

High-Frequency 64-Element Ring-Annular Array Transducer: Development and Preclinical Validation for Intravascular Ultrasound Imaging

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging has become an essential method for diagnosing coronary artery disease. However, traditional mechanically rotational IVUS catheters encounter issues such as mechanical wear and imaging distortions in curved vessels. The ring-annular IVUS array has gained attention because it offers superior imaging performance without the need for mechanical rotational parts, thereby avoiding rotational imaging distortion. An optimized mechanical micromachining process employing precision dicing technology is proposed in this study, with the objective of achieving higher operating frequencies and minimized outer diameters for a 64-element ring-annular array. This method broadens the range of fabrication options and improves the imaging sensitivity of ring-annular IVUS arrays, as well as eliminating imaging distortion in rotational IVUS catheters, particularly in curved vessels. The probe has a 7.5 Fr (2.5 mm) outer diameter, with key fabrication steps including precision dicing, flexible circuit integration, and Parylene C encapsulation. The ring-annular array has a center frequency of 21.51 MHz with 67.87% bandwidth, with a 56 µm axial resolution and a 276 µm lateral resolution. The imaging performance is further validated by in vitro phantom imaging and ex vivo imaging.

A Backing-Layer-Shared Miniature Dual-Frequency Ultrasound Probe for Intravascular Ultrasound Imaging: In Vitro and Ex Vivo Validations

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging has been extensively utilized to visualize atherosclerotic coronary artery diseases and to guide coronary interventions. To receive ultrasound signals within the vessel wall safely and effectively, miniaturized ultrasound transducers that meet the strict size constraints and have a simple manufacturing procedure are highly demanded. In this work, the first known IVUS probe that employs a backing-layer-shared dual-frequency structure and a single coaxial cable is introduced, featuring a small thickness and easy interconnection procedure. The dual-frequency transducer is designed to have center frequencies of 30 MHz and 80 MHz, and both have an aperture size of 0.5 mm × 0.5 mm. The total thickness of the dual-frequency transducer is less than 700 µm. In vitro phantom imaging and ex vivo porcine coronary artery imaging experiments are conducted. The low-frequency transducer achieves spatial resolutions of 40 µm axially and 321 µm laterally, while the high-frequency transducer exhibits axial and lateral resolutions of 17 µm and 247 µm, respectively. A bandpass filter is utilized to separate the ultrasound images. Combining in vitro phantom imaging analysis with ex vivo imaging validation, a comprehensive demonstration of the promising application of the proposed miniature ultrasound probe is established.

Improving the quality of ultrasound images acquired using a therapeutic transducer

To enhance the effectiveness and safety of focused ultrasound (FUS) therapy, ultrasound image-based guidance and treatment monitoring are crucial. However, the use of FUS transducers for both therapy and imaging is impractical due to their low spatial resolution, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). To address this issue, we propose a new method that significantly improve the quality of images obtained by a FUS transducer. The proposed method employs coded excitation to enhance SNR and Wiener deconvolution to solve the problem of low axial resolution resulting from the narrow spectral bandwidth of FUS transducers. Specifically, the method eliminates the impulse response of a FUS transducer from received ultrasound signals using Wiener deconvolution, and pulse compression is performed using a mismatched filter. Simulation and commercial phantom experiments confirmed that the proposed method significantly improves the quality of images acquired by the FUS transducer. The -6 dB axial resolution was improved 1.27 mm to 0.37 mm that was similar to the resolution achieved by the imaging transducer, i.e., 0.33 mm. SNR and CNR also increased from 16.5 dB and 0.69 to 29.1 dB and 3.03, respectively, that were also similar to those by the imaging transducer (27.8 dB and 3.16). Based on the results, we believe that the proposed method has great potential to enhance the clinical utility of FUS transducers in ultrasound image-guided therapy.

Mechanically Rotating Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) Transducer: A Review

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) is a valuable imaging modality for the diagnosis of atherosclerosis. It provides useful clinical information, such as lumen size, vessel wall thickness, and plaque composition, by providing a cross-sectional vascular image. For several decades, IVUS has made remarkable progress in improving the accuracy of diagnosing cardiovascular disease that remains the leading cause of death globally. As the quality of IVUS images mainly depends on the performance of the IVUS transducer, various IVUS transducers have been developed. Therefore, in this review, recently developed mechanically rotating IVUS transducers, especially ones exploiting piezoelectric ceramics or single crystals, are discussed. In addition, this review addresses the history and technical challenges in the development of IVUS transducers and the prospects of next-generation IVUS transducers.

Recent Advances in Transducers for Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) Imaging

As a well-known medical imaging methodology, intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging plays a critical role in diagnosis, treatment guidance and post-treatment assessment of coronary artery diseases. By cannulating a miniature ultrasound transducer mounted catheter into an artery, the vessel lumen opening, vessel wall morphology and other associated blood and vessel properties can be precisely assessed in IVUS imaging. Ultrasound transducer, as the key component of an IVUS system, is critical in determining the IVUS imaging performance. In recent years, a wide range of achievements in ultrasound transducers have been reported for IVUS imaging applications. Herein, a comprehensive review is given on recent advances in ultrasound transducers for IVUS imaging. Firstly, a fundamental understanding of IVUS imaging principle, evaluation parameters and IVUS catheter are summarized. Secondly, three different types of ultrasound transducers (piezoelectric ultrasound transducer, piezoelectric micromachined ultrasound transducer and capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducer) for IVUS imaging are presented. Particularly, the recent advances in piezoelectric ultrasound transducer for IVUS imaging are extensively examined according to their different working mechanisms, configurations and materials adopted. Thirdly, IVUS-based multimodality intravascular imaging of atherosclerotic plaque is discussed. Finally, summary and perspectives on the future studies are highlighted for IVUS imaging applications.

Effectiveness of synthetic aperture focusing and coherence factor weighting for intravascular ultrasound imaging

Synthetic aperture focusing (SAF) and coherence factor weighting (CFW) have been used to improve the lateral resolution of ultrasound images. Although the two methods are effective for array-based ultrasound imaging, many researchers have also employed the methods for single-element-based imaging including intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging. For single-element-based imaging, CFW is generally calculated from the scanlines obtained by SAF and applied to the scanline obtained after coherent summation of the SAF delayed scanlines, which is called a SAF-CFW method. In the paper, a theoretical model was derived to explore the effectiveness of SAF and CFW for single-element-based imaging, and the model was used to explain that SAF is not effective for IVUS imaging in terms of enhancing the spatial resolution, although it has the advantage of improving a contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). This means that the SAF-CFW method is not optimal for improving the spatial resolution of IVUS imaging. In contrast, it was found in simulations and experiments that applying CFW to the target scanline itself is beneficial for the spatial resolution rather than a coherent summed scanline for IVUS SAF imaging, but CNR was not as good as SAF and SAF-CFW. As a result of both simulation and experimentation, it could be concluded that focused IVUS transducers without the application of those methods may be more advantageous to improve the spatial and contrast resolution simultaneously, considering the system complexity in the implementation of such imaging methods.

Intravascular Ultrasound Transducer by Using Polarization Inversion Technique for Tissue Harmonic Imaging: Modeling and Experiments

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) tissue harmonic imaging (THI) is a useful vessel imaging technique that can provide deep penetration depth as well as high spatial and contrast resolution. Typically, a high-frequency IVUS transducer for THI requires a broad bandwidth or dual-frequency bandwidth. However, it is very difficult to make an IVUS transducer with a frequency bandwidth covering from the fundamental frequency to the second harmonic or a dual-peak at the desired frequency. To solve this problem, in this study, we applied the polarization inversion technique (PIT) to the IVUS transducer for THI. The PIT makes it relatively easy to design IVUS transducers with suitable frequency characteristics for THI depending on the inversion ratio of the piezoelectric layer and specifications of the passive materials. In this study, two types of IVUS transducers based on the PIT were developed for THI. One is a front-side inversion layer (FSIL) transducer with a broad bandwidth, and the other is a back-side inversion layer (BSIL) transducer with a dual-frequency bandwidth. These transducers were designed using finite element analysis (FEA)-based simulation, and the prototype transducers were fabricated. Subsequently, the performance was evaluated by not only electrical impedance and pulse-echo response tests but also B-mode imaging tests with a 25 μm tungsten wire and tissue-mimicking gelatin phantoms. The FEA simulation and experimental results show that the proposed scheme can successfully implement the tissue harmonic IVUS image, and thus it can be one of the promising techniques for developing IVUS transducers for THI.

A Review of Acoustic Impedance Matching Techniques for Piezoelectric Sensors and Transducers

The coupling of waves between the piezoelectric generators, detectors, and propagating media is challenging due to mismatch in the acoustic properties. The mismatch leads to the reverberation of waves within the transducer, heating, low signal-to-noise ratio, and signal distortion. Acoustic impedance matching increases the coupling largely. This article presents standard methods to match the acoustic impedance of the piezoelectric sensors, actuators, and transducers with the surrounding wave propagation media. Acoustic matching methods utilizing active and passive materials have been discussed. Special materials such as nanocomposites, metamaterials, and metasurfaces as emerging materials have been presented. Emphasis is placed throughout the article to differentiate the difference between electric and acoustic impedance matching and the relation between the two. Comparison of various techniques is made with the discussion on capabilities, advantages, and disadvantages. Acoustic impedance matching for specific and uncommon applications has also been covered.

A Single-Chip High-Voltage Integrated Actuator for Biomedical Ultrasound Scanners

This article presents a high-voltage (HV) pulse driver based on silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology for biomedical ultrasound actuators and multi-channel portable imaging systems specifically. The pulse driver, which receives an external low-voltage drive signal and produces high-voltage pulses with a balanced rising and falling edge, is designed by synthesizing high-speed, capacitor-coupled level-shifters with a high-voltage H-bridge output stage. In addition, an on-chip floating power supply has also been developed to simplify powering the entire system and reduce static power consumption. The electrical and acoustic performance of the integrated eight-channel pulse driver has been verified by using medical-grade ultrasound probes to acquire the transmit/echo signals. The driver can produce pulse signals >100 Vpp with rise and fall times within 18.6 and 18.5 ns, respectively. The static power required to support the overall system is less than 3.6 mW, and the power consumption of the system during excitation is less than 50 mW per channel. The second harmonic distortion of the output pulse signal is as low as −40 dBc, indicating that the integrated multi-channel pulse driver can be used in advanced portable ultrasonic imaging systems.

Magnetically Actuated Forward-Looking Interventional Ultrasound Imaging: Feasibility Studies

OBJECTIVE

Interventional ultrasound imaging is a prerequisite for guiding implants and treatment within the hearts and blood vessels. Due to limitations on the catheter's diameter, interventional ultrasonic transducers have side-looking structures although forward-looking imaging may provide more intuitive and real time guidance in treating diseased sites ahead of catheters. To address the issue, a magnetically actuated forward-looking interventional ultrasound imaging device is implemented for the first time.

METHODS

A forward-looking catheter containing a 1 mm ring type focused 35 MHz ultrasound transducer and a micro magnet, was fabricated. For imaging, the transducer was placed at the center of four electromagnetic coils positioned on four sides of a squared acrylic housing. By modifying the magnetic field, the catheter tip could be remotely translated for sector scanning.

RESULTS

The scanning angle could reach up to 3° in 1 Hz with 15 mT, while wider angles of 5° could be achieved with a higher magnetic field of 25 mT for ex-vivo imaging. The position of the transducer could be detected by monitoring the motion with a CCD camera, mimicking clinical X-ray imaging. In the wire target and tissue mimicking phantom studies, the measured hole size, spatial resolution and distance between wires by the proposed system were comparable with the values from a linear scanner. Multi-frame real time data acquisition was demonstrated via ex-vivo imaging on a pig's coronary artery.

CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE

The feasibility of magnetically actuated forward-looking interventional ultrasound imaging was demonstrated. The remote-controlled scanning method may allow to simplify the structures of forward-looking interventional ultrasound imaging catheters.

Dual-Element Intravascular Ultrasound Transducer for Tissue Harmonic Imaging and Frequency Compounding: Development and Imaging Performance Assessment

OBJECTIVE

For accurate diagnosis of atherosclerosis, the high spatial and contrast resolutions of intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) images are a key requirement. Increasing the center frequency of IVUS is a simple solution to meet this requirement. However, this leads to a reduction in imaging depth due to the frequency-dependent attenuation of ultrasound. Here, we report a recently developed dual-element IVUS transducer for tissue harmonic imaging (THI) and frequency compounding to increase the spatial and contrast resolutions of IVUS images, while maintaining the imaging depth to assess the overall morphological change of blood vessels.

METHODS

One 35-MHz element is used for producing general IVUS images and the other 70-MHz element is for receiving the second harmonic signals induced by the 35-MHz ultrasound. The fundamental and second harmonic signals can also be used for frequency compound imaging to further improve contrast resolution. The spatial and contrast resolutions achieved by the developed transducer were evaluated through wire and tissue-mimicking phantom imaging tests. Additionally, the images of a stent deployed in a tissue-mimicking phantom and an excised pig artery were acquired to assess clinical usefulness of the transducer.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that the developed IVUS transducer enables us to simultaneously examine the overall morphological change of blood vessels by the 35-MHz ultrasound images and the near vessel layers such as the intima, the media, and the adventitia by either THI or compound images with high spatial and contrast resolutions. In addition, the developed transducer facilitates the simultaneous acquisition of 35- and 70-MHz fundamental images when needed.

CONCLUSION

The developed dual-element IVUS transducer makes it possible to fully realize the potential benefits of IVUS in the diagnosis of atherosclerosis.

Cable shared dual-frequency catheter for intravascular ultrasound

This study proposes a catheter consisting of dual-frequency transducer for intravascular ultrasound. Both ultrasonic elements with different frequencies were connected to one coaxial cable to make the connection simple. The aperture size of the ultrasound elements were 0.4×0.6 mm2 and 0.3×0.4 mm2 for the low frequency element and high frequency element, respectively. The center frequency and bandwidth of the fabricated low frequency transducer were 33.8 MHz and 49.3%, respectively. Meanwhile, the center frequency and bandwidth of the high frequency transducer were 80.6 MHz and 50.3%, respectively. Imaging evaluations of wire phantom, tissue phantom and vessel tissue demonstrated good imaging capability of the dual-frequency catheter. The spatial resolution are 19 μm axially and 128 μm laterally for the high frequency transducer, and 37 μm axially and 199 μm laterally for the low frequency transducer. Band-pass filters were designed to separate the mixed echo signals. After filtering, the images from different ultrasound elements can be successfully identified, indicating the feasibility of the proposed cable shared dual-frequency imaging strategy. The proposed method has simple structure, good imaging resolution, and large penetration depth, showing good application prospect for intravascular ultrasound.

A Review of Electric Impedance Matching Techniques for Piezoelectric Sensors, Actuators and Transducers

Any electric transmission lines involving the transfer of power or electric signal requires the matching of electric parameters with the driver, source, cable, or the receiver electronics. Proceeding with the design of electric impedance matching circuit for piezoelectric sensors, actuators, and transducers require careful consideration of the frequencies of operation, transmitter or receiver impedance, power supply or driver impedance and the impedance of the receiver electronics. This paper reviews the techniques available for matching the electric impedance of piezoelectric sensors, actuators, and transducers with their accessories like amplifiers, cables, power supply, receiver electronics and power storage. The techniques related to the design of power supply, preamplifier, cable, matching circuits for electric impedance matching with sensors, actuators, and transducers have been presented. The paper begins with the common tools, models, and material properties used for the design of electric impedance matching. Common analytical and numerical methods used to develop electric impedance matching networks have been reviewed. The role and importance of electrical impedance matching on the overall performance of the transducer system have been emphasized throughout. The paper reviews the common methods and new methods reported for electrical impedance matching for specific applications. The paper concludes with special applications and future perspectives considering the recent advancements in materials and electronics.

A 40-MHz Ultrasound Transducer with an Angled Aperture for Guiding Percutaneous Revascularization of Chronic Total Occlusion: A Feasibility Study

Complete blockage of a coronary artery, called chronic total occlusion (CTO), frequently occurs due to atherosclerosis. To reopen the obstructed blood vessels with a stent, guidewire crossing is performed with the help of angiography that can provide the location of CTO lesions and the image of guidewire tip. Since angiography is incapable of imaging inside a CTO lesion, the surgeons are blind during guidewire crossing. For this reason, the success rate of guidewire crossing relies upon the proficiency of the surgeon, which is considerably reduced from 69.0% to 32.5% if extensive calcification, not penetrated by a guidewire, exists in CTO lesions. In this paper, a recently developed 40-MHz forward-looking intravascular ultrasound (FL–IVUS) transducer to visualize calcification within CTO lesions is reported. This transducer consists of a single element angled aperture and a guidewire passage. The aperture is spherically deformed to have a focal length of 3 mm in order to improve spatial resolution of FL–IVUS images. The angle between the beam direction and the axis of rotation is designed to be 30° to effectively visualize calcification within a CTO lesion as well as the blood vessel wall. The experimental results demonstrated that the developed FL–IVUS transducer facilitates visualization of calcification within CTO lesions and makes it possible to help the surgeon make decisions about whether to push the guidewire in order to cross the lesion or to change the surgical procedure.

A 35 MHz/105 MHz Dual-Element Focused Transducer for Intravascular Ultrasound Tissue Imaging Using the Third Harmonic

The superharmonic imaging of tissue has the potential for high spatial and contrast resolutions, compared to the fundamental and second harmonic imaging. For this technique, the spectral bandwidth of an ultrasound transducer is divided for transmission of ultrasound and reception of its superharmonics (i.e., higher than the second harmonic). Due to the spectral division for the transmission and reception, transmitted ultrasound energy is not sufficient to induce superharmonics in media without using contrast agents, and it is difficult that a transducer has a −6 dB fractional bandwidth of higher than 100%. For the superharmonic imaging of tissue, thus, multi-frequency array transducers are the best choice if available; transmit and receive elements are separate and have different center frequencies. However, the construction of a multi-frequency transducer for intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging is particularly demanding because of its small size of less than 1 mm. Here, we report a recently developed dual-element focused IVUS transducer for the third harmonic imaging of tissue, which consists of a 35-MHz element for ultrasound transmission and a 105-MHz element for third harmonic reception. For high quality third harmonic imaging, both elements were fabricated to have the same focus at 2.5 mm. The results of tissue mimicking phantom tests demonstrated that the third harmonic images produced by the developed transducer had higher spatial resolution and deeper imaging depth than the fundamental images.