Could the aroma of spices produce a cross-modal enhancement of food saltiness and contribute to reducing salt intake?

BACKGROUND

As a result of its correlation with cardiovascular diseases, salt intake must be reduced. According to multi-sensory integration, aroma plays an important role in saltiness enhancement; this could enable a food's salt content to be reduced without losing acceptance. We therefore studied the effect of three spices, Curcuma longa, Laurus nobilis L. and Petroselinum crispum L., on saltiness enhancement through sensory tests on consumers. This was followed by olfactometric analysis with the aim of relating the effect to the spices' aromatic composition.

RESULTS

According to the odour-induced salty taste enhancement (OISE) mean values, bay leaf and turmeric had the highest effect on saltiness enhancement, at a similar level to dry-cured ham aroma, wherwas parsley had a significantly lower OISE value. Only one odour-active compound (OAC), eugenol, showed a direct correlation with the spices' OISE values. Turmeric primarily had OACs with sweet aroma, whereas bay leaf had more OACs belonging to the spicy-aroma category.

CONCLUSION

The three spices, turmeric, bay leaf and parsley, investigated in the present study appear to enhance the salty taste of mashed potato with a low salt content. The results suggest that an interaction effect among OACs with different aromatic ranges may exist. Therefore, when the global OAC modified frequency value, grouped according to aroma range, was considered, the sweet range appears to counteract the effect of the spicy aroma on saltiness. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sodium and Human Health: What Can Be Done to Improve Sodium Balance beyond Food Processing?

Sodium plays a key role in the regulation of water balance and is also important in food formulation due to its contribution to the taste and use in the preservation of many foods. Excessive intake of any essential nutrient is problematic and this seems to be particularly the case for sodium since a high intake makes it the nutrient most strongly associated with mortality. Sodium intake has been the object of recommendations by public health agencies such as the WHO and this has resulted in efforts by the food industry to reduce the sodium content of packaged foods, although there is still room for improvement. The recent literature also emphasizes the need for other strategies, e.g., regulations and education, to promote adequate sodium intake. In the present paper, we also describe the potential benefits of a global healthy lifestyle that considers healthy eating but also physical activity habits that improve body functionality and may help to attenuate the detrimental effects of high sodium intake on body composition and cardiometabolic health. In conclusion, a reduction in sodium intake, an improvement in body functioning, and educational interventions promoting healthy eating behaviours seem to be essential for the optimal regulation of sodium balance.

Mushroom alcohol(1-octen-3-ol)and other 7 aroma compounds selected from Chinese dry-cured hams can enhance saltiness perception

Reducing NaCl content in food while maintaining acceptability poses a significant challenge. Odor-induced saltiness enhancement (OISE) emerges as a promising solution. This study utilized gas chromatography-olfactory (GC-O) in conjunction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify 37 key volatile compounds in three representative Chinese dry-cured hams. These compounds had an odor activity value (OAV) of ≥1 or a modification frequency (MF) of ≥30%. Subsequently, quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) identified eight odorants associated with saltiness. These included 1-octen-3-ol, nonanal, heptanal, 2-methylbutanal, 3-methyl-butanal, benzaldehyde, octanal, and 2,6-dimethylpyrazine. Remarkably, these odorants significantly intensified saltiness (P < 0.05) when added to a low-concentration NaCl solution (0.3%), compared to zero or high concentrations (0.75% and 0.8%). As a result, traditional Chinese salty meat products offer a promising source of odorants for enhancing saltiness, compensating for reduced NaCl content through OISE.

Glycocalyx-Sodium Interaction in Vascular Endothelium

The glycocalyx generally covers almost all cellular surfaces, where it participates in mediating cell-surface interactions with the extracellular matrix as well as with intracellular signaling molecules. The endothelial glycocalyx that covers the luminal surface mediates the interactions of endothelial cells with materials flowing in the circulating blood, including blood cells. Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality around the world. The cardiovascular risk factors start by causing endothelial cell dysfunction associated with destruction or irregular maintenance of the glycocalyx, which may culminate into a full-blown cardiovascular disease. The endothelial glycocalyx plays a crucial role in shielding the cell from excessive exposure and absorption of excessive salt, which can potentially cause damage to the endothelial cells and underlying tissues of the blood vessels. So, in this mini review/commentary, we delineate and provide a concise summary of the various components of the glycocalyx, their interaction with salt, and subsequent involvement in the cardiovascular disease process. We also highlight the major components of the glycocalyx that could be used as disease biomarkers or as drug targets in the management of cardiovascular diseases.

Sodium Replacement with KCl and MSG: Attitudes, Perception and Acceptance in Reduced Salt Soups

Sodium intake is linked to multiple negative health outcomes, particularly hypertension, the leading cause of premature death globally. Sodium intake levels in human populations are high, due in part to our desire for palatable salty-tasting foods. Two leading salt replacement strategies are the use of potassium chloride (KCl) and monosodium glutamate (MSG), the latter of which still contains some sodium, but both of which can replace some salty taste in foods while reducing net sodium levels. In this report, we employed a trained descriptive sensory panel to optimize saltiness in sodium-reduced aqueous samples using various concentrations of KCl and MSG. Following this, we assessed consumer attitudes to sodium-reduction strategies in a model food, canned soup, known to typically be high in sodium. Finally, in a large consumer test, we verified that these optimized levels of KCl and MSG did not lead to a drop in liking for the reduced-sodium soups with saltiness subsidized in this manner. Our results showed that sodium can be readily reduced in soups by 18% while actually scoring higher in liking, and in some cases being perceived as even more salty tasting, but that consumers are more open to sodium reduction in this manner when sodium replacements are not specifically highlighted, and when percentage sodium reduction is stated over absolute levels.

Compendium of sodium reduction strategies in foods: A scoping review

In response to health concerns generated by increased sodium intake, many new approaches have been studied to reduce the sodium content in processed food. It has been suggested that reducing sodium in the food supply may be the most appropriate solution. The aim of this scoping review was to establish what sodium reduction strategies are effective in maintaining acceptable sensory qualities for various food industry applications. Studies that evaluate and report on the effectiveness of a sodium reduction strategy relevant to food and included outcomes detailing how the strategies were received by human subjects using sensory data are included, as well as book chapters, literature reviews, and patents focusing on sodium reduction strategies. Only those published in English and since 1970 were included. Literature was obtained through Scopus, PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases, whereas patents were obtained through US Patent Trademark Office, Google Patents, and PATENTSCOPE databases. Two-hundred and seventy-seven primary studies, 27 literature reviews, 10 book chapters, and 143 patents were selected for inclusion. Data extracted included details such as analytical methods, broad and specific treatment categories, significant outcomes, and limitations among other material. Sodium reduction methods were categorized as either salt removal, salt replacement, flavor modification, functional modification, or physical modification. Although salt removal and salt replacement were the majority of included studies, future research would benefit from combining methods from other categories while investigating the impact on sensory characteristics, technological aspects, and consumer perception of the strategy.

Sodium Reduction in Bouillon: Targeting a Food Staple to Reduce Hypertension in Sub-saharan Africa

Bouillon cubes are a staple ingredient used in Sub-saharan African countries providing flavor enhancement to savory foods. Bouillon has been identified as a vehicle for fortification to overcome micronutrient deficiencies in Sub-saharan Africa. However, bouillon has a high sodium content (and in addition with other foods) contributes to dietary sodium intake above recommended guidelines. High dietary sodium intake is a key risk factor for hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Africa has the highest rates of hypertension and CVD globally with nearly half the adult population above 25 years affected. This review presents current state of research on sodium reduction strategies in bouillon. The key challenge is to reduce sodium levels while maintaining optimal flavor at the lowest possible production cost to ensure bouillon continues to be affordable in Sub-saharan Africa. To produce lower sodium bouillon with acceptable flavor at low cost will likely involve multiple sodium reduction strategies; direct reduction in sodium, sodium replacement and saltiness boosting flavor technologies. Efforts to reduce the sodium content of bouillon in Sub-saharan Africa is a worthwhile strategy to: (i) lower the overall sodium consumption across the population, and (ii) deliver population-wide health benefits in a region with high rates of hypertension and CVD.

How much can sodium chloride be substituted for potassium chloride without affecting the sensory acceptance of cracker-type biscuits?

Excessive sodium consumption is a worldwide public health concern. The substitution of sodium chloride (NaCl) for potassium chloride (KCl) has been adopted to reduce the sodium concentration in processed foods. The challenge is to make this substitution without affecting the sensory acceptance of foods. In this context, the objective was to determine from which concentrations the replacement of NaCl by KCl results in reduced acceptance (compromised acceptance threshold - CAT) and begins the sensory rejection (hedonic rejection threshold - HRT) of cracker-type biscuits. Using the hedonic thresholds methodology (HTM) by varying a stimulus, CAT and HRT were determined for the concentration of NaCl in crackers and, by varying two stimuli, CAT and HRT, for replacing NaCl with KCl in crackers were determined. Without the addition of KCl, the reduction in acceptance started to occur by reducing the NaCl content by around 60% (from 1.81% to 0.73%); and sensory rejection began to appear by reducing the NaCl content by approximately 93% (1.81% to 0.13%). Reduction in the acceptance started to occur by lowering the NaCl content by around 78% (from 1.81% to 0.397%), with the addition of 0.896% KCl. In addition, by adding KCl, it was possible to reduce 100% NaCl without sensory rejection of the crackers. With these results, cracker industries can reduce the sodium content of their products, contributing to the reduction of population salt intake.

Enhancement of saltiness perception by odorants selected from Chinese soy sauce: A gas chromatography/olfactometry-associated taste study

Odor-taste interaction has become a popular salt reduction method. In this study, the odorants associated with saltiness in soy sauce were selected by gas chromatography/olfactometry-associated taste (GC/O-AT), and their ability to induce saltiness/umami enhancement was verified by sensory evaluation. A total of 30 taste-associated odorants were perceived, including 5 saltiness-associated and 2 umami-associated odorants. Among them, 3-(methylthio)propanal, 1-octen-3-ol, 3-(methylthio)-1-propanol, and 2,5-dimethylpyrazine could significantly enhance saltiness of 0.3% NaCl solution (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 3-(methylthio)propanal, maltol, 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (HDMF), dimethyl trisulfide, 3-(methylthio)-1-propanol and 1-octen-3-ol could also enhance the umami taste in 0.3% monosodium glutamate solution. Compared with zero or strong-salt-content (0.8%) solution, the saltiness of weak-salt-content (0.3%) was enhanced significantly by adding the odorant. These results suggest that salty food is an efficient source for selecting saltiness-enhancing odorants, which could be used to compensate NaCl reduction in food.

Contribution of the retronasal odor of soy sauce to salt reduction

The characteristic odor of soy sauce has been reported to enhance saltiness. However, soy sauce is used not only as a sauce that is added directly to food, but also as a seasoning. In addition, some of the aromatic compounds that contribute to the soy sauce odor change during cooking or heating. In the present study, the effects of the retronasal odor of uncooked and cooked soy sauce on the enhancement of saltiness and palatability of a low-salt solution were sensory evaluated. A probit analysis indicated that the saltiness-enhancing effect of the odor of 15% uncooked soy sauce was lost by heating. The odors of soy sauce boiled for 10 min (cooked SS) and the residue of soy sauce heated at 200 °C for 1 min improved the palatability of the low-salt solution. Gas chromatography (GC) analyses, namely, GC-olfactometry and GC-mass spectrometry, showed that one active candidate aromatic component of soy sauce contributing to saltiness enhancement was 3-methyl-1-butanol (3-Me-BuOH). The saltiness-enhancing effects of cooked SS could be restored by adding 3-Me-BuOH, as assessed by the sensory evaluation. These data demonstrated that 3-Me-BuOH contributes to saltiness enhancement. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: We found that the odor of cooked soy sauce could improve the palatability of low-salt food. Although the saltiness-enhancing effect provided by the odor of uncooked soy sauce was lost, the saltiness-enhancing effect of the odor of cooked soy sauce can be partially restored by adding 3-methyl butanol. Thus, not only the odor of unheated soy sauce but also the odor of heated soy sauce following addition of 3-methyl butanol may be useful for developing palatable salt-reduced food.

The influence of companion foods on sensory attribute perception and liking of regular and sodium-reduced foods

Among major contributors of dietary sodium intake, many foods are consumed together with companion foods, specifically condiments and carriers. This study compared sensory profiles and overall liking between commercially available regular and sodium-reduced foods consumed with or without companion foods; and examined changes in sensory profiles and overall liking when foods are consumed in condiment-carrier pairs. Three distinct consumer panels evaluated one of the three condiment-carrier pairs, salsa-corn chips (n = 98, 63% female), ketchup-tater tots (n = 100, 69% female), and soy sauce-cooked rice (n = 98, 70% female). For each panel, consumers evaluated five samples; including the regular and sodium-reduced carriers/condiments alone, the companion food alone, and the regular and sodium-reduced foods each with its companion food. Samples were rated for overall liking (9-point hedonic scale) and the intensity of defining sensory attributes (3-point Rate-All-That-Apply scale). Consumers perceived sensory attribute differences between regular and sodium-reduced corn chips (salty) and soy sauce (salty, sweet), but not ketchup. The presence of the companion food reduced consumer ability to discriminate sensory attributes between regular and sodium-reduced products and changed sensory profiles and liking of the foods. Additionally, consumer heterogeneity in hedonic response identified three consumer segments in each consumer panel. Consumer segments differed in their sensory attribute perception. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: It is possible for the food industry to reduce sodium in a range of companion foods without changing consumer preference. The selection of companion foods is important to consumer evaluation of foods under the context of food pairing; corn chips-salsa and ketchup-tater tots are appropriate food pairs. Future sensory studies on food reformulation toward sodium reduction should target specific consumer segments of product liking and sensory attribute perception, which may in turn be influenced by food consumption frequency.

Cross-modal interactions as a strategy to enhance salty taste and to maintain liking of low-salt food: a review

Salt reduction in foods is becoming an important challenge to protect population health from severe diseases as recommended by different health agencies worldwide. Among the reduction strategies already evaluated in order to lower sodium salt content in foods, the use of cross-modal interactions between taste and odour, regardless of saltiness, was revealed to be a very promising method to improve saltiness perception. Cross-modal odour-taste interactions, as means to enhance salty taste in foods, is reviewed. Salt-related odours can enhance salty taste in water solutions containing a low level of sodium chloride through odour-induced changes in taste perception. Odour-induced saltiness perception enhancement (OISE) depends on salt concentration (intensity). OISE was also found to be effective in low salt content solid model cheese but was texture- and composition-dependent. A significant enhancement in saltiness perception induced by Comté cheese and sardine odours was observed only in model foods with soft textures. In ternary odour-sour-salty solutions, sourness additively enhanced saltiness perception with salt-related odours. Finally, in cream-based food systems, a strategy combining OISE and heterogeneous distribution of stimuli was found to compensate for a greater than 35% decrease in salt content without significant loss of acceptability. However, variation in the composition of the food matrix influenced aroma and salt release and consequently the overall saltiness perception. A better knowledge of the mechanisms involved in cross-modal perceptual interactions at the central level should allow for the optimization of their use as salt reduction strategies for healthier food design.

Importance of Applying Condiments in a Commonly Consumed Food System for Understanding the Association Between Familiarity and Sensory Drivers of Liking: A Study Focused on Doenjang

Doenjang, a Korean traditional fermented soybean paste, is one of the most essential condiments in Korean cuisine. Condiments are rarely consumed as it is, and are generally applied to other foods. The objective of this study was to understand how sensory drivers of liking of Doenjang would be affected according to food forms in which it is evaluated: the original paste form compared with a normally consumed soup form, and to understand the association of familiarity of evaluated food form. Descriptive analysis and consumer acceptability test was performed in 2 consumption forms: the original paste form and the Doenjang soup from. For consumer liking test, elderly consumers who have more experience to traditional Deonjang were compared to the young in their response to Doenjang paste and soup. The descriptive analysis results showed that the characteristic sensory features of the Deonjang samples were little affected based on the food system in which it was evaluated. However, when the paste was applied in soup, the intensities of the characteristic sensory features were reduced. Acceptability and familiarity of traditional type Doenjang samples for the young and for the elderly consumers were very similar in paste, but it differed when the samples were evaluated in soup. Thus, expectation difference between the young and the elderly was better revealed in soup, a more common food form consumed in practice. The results of this study indicate the importance of understanding sensory drivers of liking for a condiment such as Doenjang in their commonly consumed forms.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Compared to the original condiment form, expectation difference between the young and the elderly were better revealed in Deonjang soup, a food form normally consumed in practice. Thus, the results of this study reinforced the importance of investigating sensory drivers of liking for a condiment in a food form that is normally consumed in practice for accurate understanding on consumer preference.

US consumers' acceptability of soy sauce and bulgogi

This study investigated acceptability and consumer segmentation of soy sauce and famous Korean dish, bulgogi. A total of 123 participants evaluated intensity of 18 attributes and sensory liking of 4 commercial soy sauce samples and bulgogi samples made by aforementioned soy sauces. The overall results showed that appearance liking was the only significant different attribute among soy sauce samples and there were no significant differences among bulgogi samples. Furthermore, there was little correlation between overall liking of soy sauce and bulgogi samples. However, different segments of consumer groups were found by cluster analysis. Four and five subgroups of consumers were identified on evaluation of soy sauce samples and bulgogi samples, respectively. These results demonstrated that consumers' different preference pattern. In conclusion, this study specified characteristics of commercial soy sauce perceived by consumers and consumers' acceptability toward soy sauces and bulgogi made using soy sauces.

The flavor and acceptability of six different potassium-enriched (sodium reduced) iodized salts: a single-blind, randomized, crossover design

Background

Hypertension is a serious public health problem. Potassium-enriched salt is suggested as a tool for lowering blood pressure. However, its flavor and taste acceptability is essential for population-based salt reduction strategy and needs to be well-understood. This trial assessed the flavor and taste acceptability of six different potassium-enriched iodized salts in the general population.

Methods

We conducted this crossover trial from May to June 2016, enrolling 100 normal volunteer subjects aged 11 to 64 years. We compared regular sodium chloride salt (placebo) with six different potassium-enriched (sodium reduced) iodized salt (experiment), including 0 %, 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, 20 %, 25 %, and 30 %. The participants served as their own control and received a placebo and a sequence of the experiments. They tasted the two salts sequentially and stated their preference and acceptance. Each subject received all salts.

Results

More than 80 % of participants who either did not distinguish between the two salts even in high potassium-enriched salts or preferred potassium-enriched salt (P < 0.001). The number of participants who preferred the flavor of potassium-enriched salt was greater than the number of subjects who preferred the flavor of regular sodium chloride.

Conclusion

Our findings indicated that the six different potassium-enriched salts had a public acceptability of at least 80 % among normal subjects from the general population. Although the acceptability of the potassium-enriched salts by a more general population group would require to be confirmed, universal use of this salt may help us achieve the target of 30 % relative reduction in mean population intake of sodium by 2025.