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Vilela Dos Santos P, de Toledo DNM, Guimarães NS, Perucci LO, de Andrade-Neto VF, Talvani A. Upregulation of IL-33, CCL2, and CXCL16 levels in Brazilian pregnant women infected by Toxoplasma gondii. Acta Trop 2023; 243:106931. [PMID: 37086937 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 04/24/2023]
Abstract
Congenital toxoplasmosis can cause neurological and eye damage, behavioral alterations, or death in fetuses or babies born to Toxoplasma gondii-infected women. Several pieces of evidence suggest that socioeconomic, environmental, and inflammatory patterns linked to the maternal immune response partly drive the pathogenesis of this disease. However, immunoregulation induced by T. gondii infection during gestation is not completely understood. The aim of this study was to assess the association between T. gondii seropositivity and concentrations of plasma markers (CCL2, CXCL16, IL-17, and IL-33) in Brazilian pregnant women. Inflammatory markers were measured by immunoassays in the plasma of 131 pregnant women (13 to 46 years old). The prevalence of T. gondii infections was 45.8% (n = 60) in this population. The concentrations of CCL2, CXCL16, and IL-33 were higher in T. gondii-seropositive than in seronegative pregnant women, while the opposite was observed for IL-17 levels. In IgG+ women, a strong correlation between IL-17 and IL-33 (r = 0.7508, p = 0.0001) and a moderate correlation between CXCL16/IL-17 (r = 0.7319, p = 0.0001) and CXCL16/CCL2 (r = 0.3519, p = 0.0098) was observed. In uninfected women, a strong correlation was found between IL-17 and CXCL16 (r = 0.6779, p = 0.0001) but moderate between IL-17 and IL-33 (r = 0.4820, p = 0.0001). In summary, our data suggest that plasma upregulation of CCL2, CXCL16, and IL-33 might exert a potential protective role in the mother/fetus/parasite axis and, in addition, multiparous women are more likely to be infected with T. gondii than primiparous women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Vilela Dos Santos
- Immunobiology Laboratory of Inflammation, Department of Biological Sciences/ ICEB, Federal University Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil; Graduate Program in Health and Nutrition, Federal University Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil
| | - Débora Nonato Miranda de Toledo
- Immunobiology Laboratory of Inflammation, Department of Biological Sciences/ ICEB, Federal University Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil; Graduate Program in Health and Nutrition, Federal University Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Luiza Oliveira Perucci
- Immunobiology Laboratory of Inflammation, Department of Biological Sciences/ ICEB, Federal University Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil
| | - Valter Ferreira de Andrade-Neto
- Laboratory of Malaria Biology and Toxoplasmosis, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - André Talvani
- Immunobiology Laboratory of Inflammation, Department of Biological Sciences/ ICEB, Federal University Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil; Graduate Program in Health and Nutrition, Federal University Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil; Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Infectology and Tropical Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Fang C, Mao Y, Jiang M, Yin W. Serum sTREM-1 and CXCL-16 Levels in Children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae Pneumonia and Their Diagnostic Value. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2021; 2021:7179796. [PMID: 34691220 PMCID: PMC8528593 DOI: 10.1155/2021/7179796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia (MPP) is an acute respiratory tract infection caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae. It is characterized by severe symptoms, long course of disease, many intrapulmonary complications, and poor therapeutic effect. In recent years, the incidence of Mycoplasma infection have been gradually rising trend, and the children's own immune system development is not mature, cases differences, children with mild can only show the upper respiratory tract infection, and critically ill children can lead to lung infection and even lead to multiple organ dysfunction, affect life and health of children. Soluble triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cell-1 (sTREM-1) is a subtype secreted by myeloid cell trigger receptor-1, which is released into blood in large amounts when the body is infected, and is a newly discovered inflammatory indicator in recent years. CXC chemokine 16 (CXCL-16) can recruit lymphocytes by chemotaxis through binding to its receptor CXCR6 to participate in the body's immune regulation. The purpose of this study was to investigate serum sTREM-1 and CXCL-16 levels in children with MPP and to analyze their correlation with the disease and diagnostic value. The results showed that the serum levels of sTREM-1 and CXCL-16 were increased in children with Mycoplasma. Serum levels of sTREM-1 and CXCL-16 were positively correlated with the severity of the disease. sTREM-1 combined with CXCL-16 has an important value in the diagnosis of children with MPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengchao Fang
- Department of Pediatrics, The First People's Hospital of Yuhang, Yuhang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311100, China
| | - Yueyan Mao
- Department of Pediatrics, The First People's Hospital of Yuhang, Yuhang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311100, China
| | - Mingfen Jiang
- Department of Hemodialysis Center, The First People's Hospital of Yuhang, Yuhang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311100, China
| | - Wei Yin
- Department of Pediatrics, The First People's Hospital of Yuhang, Yuhang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311100, China
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Mullane KM. Human Cytomegalovirus Prophylaxis and Treatment in Lung Transplantation in the Current Era. CURRENT PULMONOLOGY REPORTS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s13665-020-00246-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Weseslindtner L, Hedman L, Wang Y, Strassl R, Helanterä I, Aberle SW, Bond G, Hedman K. Longitudinal assessment of the CXCL10 blood and urine concentration in kidney transplant recipients with BK polyomavirus replication-a retrospective study. Transpl Int 2020; 33:555-566. [PMID: 31981424 PMCID: PMC7216881 DOI: 10.1111/tri.13584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In kidney transplant recipients (KTRs), BK polyomavirus (BKPyV) replication may progress to polyomavirus‐associated nephropathy (PVAN). In this retrospective study, we assessed the chemokine CXCL10 in urine and blood samples consecutively acquired from 85 KTRs who displayed different stages of BKPyV replication and eventually developed PVAN. In parallel to progression toward PVAN, CXCL10 gradually increased in blood and urine, from baseline (prior to virus replication) to BKPyV DNAuria (median increase in blood: 42.15 pg/ml, P = 0.0156), from mere DNAuria to low‐ and high‐level BKPyV DNAemia (median increase: 52.60 and 87.26 pg/ml, P = 0.0010 and P = 0.0002, respectively) and peaked with histologically confirmed PVAN (median increase: 145.00 pg/ml, P < 0.0001). CXCL10 blood and urine levels significantly differed among KTRs with respect to simultaneous presence of human cytomegalovirus (P < 0.001) as well as in relation to the clinical severity of respective BKPyV DNAemia episodes (P = 0.0195). CXCL‐10 concentrations were particularly lower in KTRs in whom BKPyV DNAemia remained without clinical evidence for PVAN, as compared to individuals who displayed high decoy cell levels, decreased renal function and/or biopsy‐proven PVAN (median blood concentration: 266.97 vs. 426.42 pg/ml, P = 0.0282). In conclusion, in KTRs CXCL10 rises in parallel to BKPyV replication and correlates with the gradual development of PVAN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Weseslindtner
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Center for Virology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lea Hedman
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Yilin Wang
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Robert Strassl
- Division of Nephrology and Dialysis, Department of Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ilkka Helanterä
- Division of Nephrology, Transplantation and Liver Surgery, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Stephan W Aberle
- Center for Virology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gregor Bond
- Division of Nephrology and Dialysis, Department of Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Klaus Hedman
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
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Shi JW, Yang HL, Fan DX, Yang SL, Qiu XM, Wang Y, Lai ZZ, Ha SY, Ruan LY, Shen HH, Zhou WJ, Li MQ. The role of CXC chemokine ligand 16 in physiological and pathological pregnancies. Am J Reprod Immunol 2020; 83:e13223. [PMID: 31972050 DOI: 10.1111/aji.13223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The survival and development of a semi-allogeneic fetus during pregnancy require the involvement of a series of cytokines and immune cells. Chemokines are a type of special cytokine those were originally described as having a role in leukocyte trafficking. CXC chemokine ligand (CXCL) 16 is a member of the chemokine family, and CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR) 6 is its sole receptor. Emerging evidence has shown that CXCL16/CXCR6 is expressed at the maternal-fetal interface, by cell types that include trophoblast cells, decidual stroma cells, and decidual immune cells (eg, monocytes, γδT cells, and natural killer T (NKT) cells). The regulation of expression of CXCL16 is quite complex, and this process involves a multitude of factors. CXCL16 exerts a critical role in the establishment of a successful pregnancy through a series of molecular interactions at the maternal-fetal interface. However, an abnormal expression of CXCL16 is associated with certain pathological states associated with pregnancy, including recurrent miscarriage, pre-eclampsia, and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). In the present review, the expression and pleiotropic roles of CXCL16 under conditions of physiological and pathological pregnancy are systematically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Wei Shi
- NHC Key Lab of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui-Li Yang
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Deng-Xuan Fan
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shao-Liang Yang
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xue-Min Qiu
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhen-Zhen Lai
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Si-Yao Ha
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lu-Yu Ruan
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui-Hui Shen
- Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen-Jie Zhou
- Center of Reproductive Medicine of Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ming-Qing Li
- NHC Key Lab of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute of Planned Parenthood Research), Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Laboratory for Reproductive Immunology, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Hospital of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Kinetics of Torque Teno Virus-DNA Plasma Load Predict Rejection in Lung Transplant Recipients. Transplantation 2019; 103:815-822. [PMID: 30234787 DOI: 10.1097/tp.0000000000002436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lung transplantation is the only therapeutic option in end-stage lung diseases; however, survival after transplantation is limited by acute and chronic rejection or infectious events being results of inappropriate immunosuppression. Torque Teno Viruses (TTVs) are ubiquitous DNA viruses in humans but not found to be causative for any disease. However, some reports suggest that TTV-DNA levels reflect the grade of immunosuppression with higher levels being found in more immunosuppressed individuals. METHODS We investigated the TTV-DNA levels in 34 lung transplant recipients within their first year after transplantation by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Clinical data were extracted from charts. RESULTS In accordance with previous results TTV-DNA levels increase after lung transplantation reaching a steady state after 3 months. The TTV-DNA levels were not correlated with immunosuppressive trough levels and a selective increase was not observed with other DNA viruses. In steady state TTV-DNA levels were significantly higher in patients with infectious complications compared to the group of patients without. Additionally, TTV-DNA levels decreased significantly before biopsy-proven rejection. Sensitivity of a 10-fold decrease in TTV-DNA levels for a subsequent rejection episode was 0.74 with a specificity of 0.99. CONCLUSIONS In summary, TTV-DNA might be used as an additional tool to monitor immunosuppression in lung transplant recipients. Higher TTV-DNA levels reflect more intense immunosuppression, whereas the TTV-DNA kinetic (ie, decrease of TTV-DNA levels) indicate rejection.
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Talaya A, Giménez E, Vinuesa V, Pérez A, Amat P, Piñana JL, Albert E, Hernández-Boluda JC, Solano C, Navarro D. Kinetics of inflammatory biomarkers in plasma predict the occurrence and features of cytomegalovirus DNAemia episodes in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Med Microbiol Immunol 2019; 208:405-414. [DOI: 10.1007/s00430-019-00594-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Pombinho R, Sousa S, Cabanes D. Scavenger Receptors: Promiscuous Players during Microbial Pathogenesis. Crit Rev Microbiol 2018; 44:685-700. [PMID: 30318962 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2018.1493716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity is the most broadly effective host defense, being essential to clear the majority of microbial infections. Scavenger Receptors comprise a family of sensors expressed in a multitude of host cells, whose dual role during microbial pathogenesis gained importance over recent years. SRs regulate the recruitment of immune cells and control both host inflammatory response and bacterial load. In turn, pathogens have evolved different strategies to overcome immune response, avoid recognition by SRs and exploit them to favor infection. Here, we discuss the most relevant findings regarding the interplay between SRs and pathogens, discussing how these multifunctional proteins recognize a panoply of ligands and act as bacterial phagocytic receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Pombinho
- a Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Group of Molecular Microbiology , Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal.,b Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Group of Molecular Microbiology , Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Sandra Sousa
- a Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Group of Molecular Microbiology , Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal.,b Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Group of Molecular Microbiology , Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Didier Cabanes
- a Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Group of Molecular Microbiology , Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal.,b Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular (IBMC), Group of Molecular Microbiology , Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
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Burgener EB, Waggoner J, Pinsky BA, Chen SF. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of pediatric patients with CMV DNA detection in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Pediatr Pulmonol 2017; 52:112-118. [PMID: 27280337 DOI: 10.1002/ppul.23494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection can cause severe pulmonary disease in immunocompromised patients. There are no standard diagnostic criteria for CMV pulmonary disease beyond histopathology findings on lung tissue, which is challenging to obtain in pediatric patients. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid is easier to obtain. Since CMV remains latent after primary infection and can potentially reactivate due to any inflammatory response, CMV detection in BAL specimen may not indicate acute CMV pulmonary disease. Thus, we describe the clinical manifestations and outcomes of pediatric patients with CMV detection in BAL fluid. METHODS We reviewed the clinical, radiologic, and laboratory data of patients <19 years old with a BAL specimen positive for CMV during a 5-year period. RESULTS Thirty-four encounters in 29 patients were found with CMV detected in their BAL specimen. Half (17/34) of the encounters were in immunocompromised patients. CMV, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was the most common positive test. Forty-seven percent of the patients had other infections detected in BAL specimens. The majority of patients were never treated for CMV and resolved their acute respiratory illness. Only one patient had probable CMV pulmonary disease. DISCUSSION CMV is frequently recovered from BAL specimens but does not usually indicate acute CMV pulmonary disease. We would suggest that other diagnoses be considered first, even if CMV is recovered. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2017;52:112-118. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth B Burgener
- Department of Pediatrics, Pulmonary Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, 94304, California
| | - Jesse Waggoner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
| | - Benjamin A Pinsky
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
| | - Sharon F Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Disease, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
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Intrapulmonary Human Cytomegalovirus Replication in Lung Transplant Recipients Is Associated With a Rise of CCL-18 and CCL-20 Chemokine Levels. Transplantation 2017; 101:197-203. [DOI: 10.1097/tp.0000000000001065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Calarota SA, Aberle JH, Puchhammer-Stöckl E, Baldanti F. Approaches for monitoring of non virus-specific and virus-specific T-cell response in solid organ transplantation and their clinical applications. J Clin Virol 2015; 70:109-119. [PMID: 26305832 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2015.07.299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Opportunistic viral infections are still a major complication following solid organ transplantation. Immune monitoring may allow the identification of patients at risk of infection and, eventually, the modulation of immunosuppressive strategies. Immune monitoring can be performed using virus-specific and non virus-specific assays. This article describes and summarizes the pros and cons of the different technical approaches. Among the assays based on non virus-specific antigens, the enumeration of T-cell subsets, the quantification of cytokines and chemokines and the quantification of intracellular adenosine triphosphate following mitogen stimulation are described and their clinical applications to determine the risk for viral infection are discussed. In addition, current specific methods available for monitoring viral-specific T-cell responses are summarized, such as peptide-MHC multimer staining, intracellular cytokine staining, enzyme-linked immunospot and virus-specific IFN-γ ELISA assays, and their clinical applications to determine the individual risk for opportunistic viral infections with human cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus and polyoma BK virus are discussed. The standardization of the procedure, the choice of the antigen(s) and the criteria to define cut-off values for positive responses are needed for some of these approaches before their implementation in the clinic. Nevertheless, immune monitoring combined with virological monitoring in transplant recipients is increasingly regarded as a helpful tool to identify patients at risk of infection as well as to assess treatment efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra A Calarota
- Molecular Virology Unit, Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, Via Taramelli 5, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Judith H Aberle
- Department of Virology, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, 1095 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Fausto Baldanti
- Molecular Virology Unit, Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, Via Taramelli 5, 27100 Pavia, Italy; Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, Viale Brambilla 74, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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