Neurophysiological impairments in multiple sclerosis-Central and peripheral motor pathways

Head-neck heating and fatigue: Effects on peripheral and central function and motor accuracy in healthy men and those with multiple sclerosis

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate whether localized heating of the head and neck, combined with prolonged submaximal exercise at a thermoneutral temperature, would elicit peripheral and central changes in healthy men and those with multiple sclerosis (MS).

METHODS

We studied the effects of head-neck heating (at 44 °C ± 0.5 °C adjacent to the skin) in men with relapsing-remitting MS (n = 16; age: 31.8 ± 7.6 years) and healthy men (n = 18; age: 27.6 ± 4.3 years). Both groups completed local heating and control trials (1-week apart) comprising 100 intermittent isometric knee extensions (5-s contraction, 20-s rest). We assessed electrically induced torque, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), central activation ratio, muscle temperature (Tmu), perceived effort, blood stress markers, electromyography (EMG), and motor variability and accuracy. Measurements were taken at baseline, after 50 and 100 repetitions, and after 1-h recovery.

RESULTS

Local heating inhibits central activation and reduces exercise-induced peripheral fatigue compared with non-heating conditions (p < 0.05) in men with MS. Head-neck heating led to a greater increase in Tmu during exercise in both groups. During high-intensity exercise (75 % MVC), local heating increased perceived effort in men with MS, impaired accuracy in healthy men, but did not affect EMG amplitude in either group (p < 0.05). Local heating during submaximal exercise induced greater changes in central and peripheral fatigability in men with MS than in healthy men (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Head-neck heating during exercise suppressed central muscle activation and reduced peripheral fatigue in men with MS more than exercise performed under non-heating conditions.

Effects of submotor-threshold tibial nerve stimulation on plantarflexion torque in healthy adults and people with multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Submotor-threshold electrical stimulation (subES) can enhance motoneuron excitability, presenting a potential strategy for improving exercise efficiency in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS).

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the effects of superimposed subES of the tibial nerve during voluntary isometric contraction on ankle plantarflexor torque production.

METHODS

A total of 48 participants, comprising both PwMS and healthy participants, performed plantarflexion at three voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) levels: 20, 60, and 100 %. During the plantarflexion, the tibial nerve was stimulated with one-second trains of subES at frequency of 80 Hz.

RESULTS

Plantarflexor torque decreased over one-second time intervals (from before to during and from during to after a train of subES) in both groups at 60 and 100 % MVIC (p < 0.01). While subES did not affect EMG signal amplitude (p > 0.05), it did lead to a statistically significant increase in median EMG frequency (p < 0.05). No differences in the effects of subES were observed between the two groups regarding torque, median EMG frequency, or EMG amplitude of the soleus muscle (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that the subES of the tibial nerve, as presented in this study, has limited potential for acutely enhancing ankle plantarflexor torque in PwMS.

Role of Maximum and Explosive Strength in the Relationship Between the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) and Functional Capacity in People with Multiple Sclerosis: A Mediation Analysis

The relationship between functional capacity and disability status in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is well established. However, to date, the interference of lower limb strength in this classic correlation has not been studied. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the mediating role of muscle lower limb strength variables, including maximum strength (MVIC) and explosive strength (RFD), in the relationship between the disability status, measured by Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), and functional test outcomes in a MS sample. A total of 49 patients performed 4 functional tests: timed up-and-go test (TUG), sit-to-stand (STS), 10-meter walk test (10MWT), and 6-minute walk test (6MWT), as well as the measurement of MVIC and RFD. A statistical mediation analysis was conducted to examine the influence of maximum and explosive strength on the relationship between EDSS and functional capacity. Regarding MVIC, the effect of EDSS on the 6MWT (indirect effect = 48%, p = .013), 10MWT (indirect effect = 18.1%, p = .015) and TUG test (indirect effect = 27.2%, p = .003) decreased. Regarding RFD late (0-200), the effect of EDSS on the 6MWT (indirect effect = 34.8% p = .0048), 10MWT (indirect effect = 18.0%, p = .021) and TUG test (indirect effect = 25.0%, p = .014) decreased. MVIC and RFD late variables play a significant role and influence the relationship between the EDSS and functional capacity.

Sensitive Identification of Asymmetries and Neuromuscular Deficits in Lower Limb Function in Early Multiple Sclerosis

BACKGROUND

In the early stages of multiple sclerosis (MS), there are no objective sensitive functional assessments to identify and quantify early subclinical neuromuscular deficits and lower limb strength asymmetries during complex movements. Single-countermovement jumps (SLCMJ), a maximum single leg vertical jump, on a force plate allow functional evaluation of unilateral lower limb performance in performance diagnostics and could therefore provide early results on asymmetries in MS.

OBJECTIVE

Objective evaluation of early lower limb neuromuscular deficits and asymmetries in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) using SLCMJ on a force plate.

METHODS

A study was conducted with pwMS (N = 126) and healthy controls (N = 97). All participants performed 3 maximal SLCMJs on a force plate. Temporal, kinetic, and power jump parameters were collected. The Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) was performed on all participants. A repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with age, Body-Mass-Index, and gender as covariates was used.

RESULTS

PwMS with normal muscle strength according to the manual muscle tests showed significantly reduced SLCMJ performance compared to HC. In both groups, jumping performance differed significantly between the dominant and non-dominant leg, with higher effect size for pwMS. A significant interaction effect between leg dominance and group was found for propulsive time, where the pwMS showed an even higher difference between the dominant and non-dominant leg compared to HC. Furthermore, there was a significant small correlation between leg asymmetries and EDSS in pwMS.

CONCLUSION

The study shows that the SLCMJ on a force plate is suitable for the early detection of subclinical lower limb neuromuscular deficits and strength asymmetries in MS.

Accelerometry as a tool for measuring the effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation

OBJECTIVE

We predicted that accelerometry would be a viable alternative to electromyography (EMG) for assessing fundamental Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) measurements (e.g. Resting Motor Threshold (RMT), recruitment curves, latencies).

NEW METHOD

21 participants were tested. TMS evoked responses were recorded with EMG on the First Dorsal Interosseus muscle and an accelerometer on the index fingertip. TMS was used to determine the (EMG-defined) RMT, then delivered at a range of intensities allowing determination of both the accelerometry-defined RMT and measurement of recruitment curves.

RESULTS

RMT assessed by EMG was significantly lower than for accelerometry (t(19)=-3.84, p<.001, mean±SD EMG = 41.1±5.28% MSO (maximum stimulator output), Jerk = 44.55±5.82% MSO), though RMTs calculated for each technique were highly correlated (r(18)=.72, p<.001). EMG/Accelerometery recruitment curves were strongly correlated (r(14)=.98, p<.001), and Bayesian model comparison indicated they were equivalent (BF01>9). Latencies measured with EMG were lower and more consistent than those identified using accelerometry (χ2(1)=80.38, p<.001, mean±SD EMG=27.01±4.58 ms, Jerk=48.4±15.33 ms).

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

EMG is used as standard by research groups that study motor control and neurophysiology, but accelerometry has not yet been considered as a potential tool to assess measurements such as the overall magnitude and latency of the evoked response.

CONCLUSIONS

While EMG provides more sensitive and reliable measurements of RMT and latency, accelerometry provides a reliable alternative to measure of the overall magnitude of TMS evoked responses.

The Association of Age, Sex, and BMI on Lower Limb Neuromuscular and Muscle Mechanical Function in People with Multiple Sclerosis

(1) Background: The countermovement jump (CMJ) on a force plate could be a sensitive assessment for detecting early lower-limb muscle mechanical deficits in the early stages of multiple sclerosis (MS). CMJ performance is known to be influenced by various anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical factors, mostly investigated in children and adult athletes. Our aim was to investigate the association of age, sex, and BMI with muscle mechanical function using CMJ to provide a comprehensive overview of lower-limb motor function in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with pwMS (N = 164) and healthy controls (N = 98). All participants performed three maximal CMJs on a force plate. Age, sex, and BMI were collected from all participants. (3) Results: Significant age, sex, and BMI effects were found for all performance parameters, flight time, and negative and positive power for pwMS and HC, but no significant interaction effects with the group (pwMS, HC) were detected. The highest significant effects were found for sex on flight time (η2 = 0.23), jump height (η2 = 0.23), and positive power (η2 = 0.13). PwMS showed significantly lower CMJ performance compared to HC in middle-aged (31-49 years), with normal weight to overweight and in both women and men. (4) Conclusions: This study showed that age, sex, and BMI are associated with muscle mechanical function in pwMS and HC. These results may be useful in developing reference values for CMJ. This is a crucial step in integrating CMJ into the diagnostic assessment of people with early MS and developing individualized and effective neurorehabilitative therapy.

Reliability and Minimal Detectable Change for Respiratory Muscle Strength Measures in Individuals With Multiple Sclerosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The test-retest reliability and minimal detectable changes (MDCs) for respiratory muscle strength measures have not been determined in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS). This study determined the test-retest reliability and MDCs for specific respiratory muscle strength measures, as well as their associations with health-related quality of life (HRQoL), disability, dyspnea, and physical activity level measures in this population. In addition, the study examined differences in respiratory muscle strength between different degrees of disability.

METHODS

Sixty-one individuals with MS attended 2 appointments separated by 7 to 10 days. Respiratory muscle strength was evaluated by maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressures (MIP/MEP), HRQoL by EuroQol-5D-5L (index and visual analog scale [EQ-VAS]), disability by the Expanded Disability Status Scale, dyspnea by the Medical Research Council scale, and physical activity levels by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Respiratory muscle strength measures had excellent test-retest reliability (ICC ≥ 0.92). The MDC for MIP is 15.42 cmH 2 O and for MEP is 17.84 cmH 2 O. Participants with higher respiratory muscle strength (MIP/MEP cmH 2 O and percentage of predicted values) had higher HRQoL ( r = 0.54-0.62, P < 0.01, EQ-5D-5L index; r = 0.30-0.42, P < 0.05, EQ-VAS); those with higher expiratory muscle strength (cmH 2 O and percentage of predicted values) had lower levels of disability ( r ≤ -0.66) and dyspnea ( r ≤ -0.61). There were differences in respiratory muscle strength between different degrees of disability ( P < 0.01; d ≥ 0.73).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Respiratory muscle strength measures provide excellent test-retest reliability in individuals with MS. MDCs can be interpreted and applied in the clinical setting. Low respiratory muscle strength can contribute to a poor HRQoL; specifically, expiratory muscle strength appears to have the strongest influence on disability status and dyspnea.

The combined deleterious effects of multiple sclerosis and ageing on neuromuscular function

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of older (>60 years) people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) is increasing. This introduces numerous challenges, as both MS and ageing independently contribute to the deterioration of neuromuscular function.

AIM

The aim was to compare the neuromuscular function in pwMS and healthy controls (HC) across three age groups: young, middle-aged, and old.

METHODS

Using a cross-sectional study design, the maximal muscle strength (Fmax) and rate of force development (RFD) of the knee extensors (KE) and plantar flexors (PF) were assessed using an isokinetic dynamometer. In addition, voluntary activation (VA) and resting twitch (RT) were measured using the interpolated twitch technique.

RESULTS

The Fmax, RFD, and VA of the KE were reduced in pwMS compared to HC across age groups. In pwMS, reductions were observed in PF Fmax, RFD, and RT, predominantly in the middle-aged and old age groups. Reductions increased with age in KE for both groups (except for VA) but in PF only for pwMS. The "trajectory" differed between pwMS and HC, as pwMS showed reductions from young to middle age, while HC showed reductions from middle to old age in KE.

CONCLUSION

The combined negative effects of MS and ageing on neuromuscular function were especially present in the PF but also substantial in the KE. RFD showed large deficits for pwMS compared to HC across age groups. The findings can partly be explained by a reduction in VA and RT, but further investigations of neural regulation are needed to explain large RFD deficits.

A Comprehensive Evaluation of Multiple Sclerosis-Related Fatigue with a Special Focus on Fatigability

INTRODUCTION

Fatigue is the most common and disabling symptom in multiple sclerosis (MS), being reported by 55% to 78% of patients with MS (PwMS). Etiology of MS-related fatigue remains poorly understood, but an increased neuromuscular fatigability (i.e., greater loss of torque during exercise) could contribute to this phenomenon. This study aimed to characterize the correlates of MS-related fatigue in PwMS using a comprehensive group of physiological and psychosocial measures, with a particular focus on fatigability.

METHODS

Forty-two relapsing-remitting PwMS and 20 healthy subjects were recruited. PwMS were assigned in two groups (high (HF) and low (LF) fatigue) based on two fatigue questionnaires (Fatigue Severity Scale and Modified Fatigue Impact Scale). The main outcomes of this study are derived from incremental cycling completed to task failure (i.e., inability to pedal around 60 rpm). Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), rating of perceived exertion, and central and peripheral parameters measured using transcranial magnetic and peripheral nerve stimulation were assessed in the knee extensor muscles before, during, and after the fatiguing task. Other potential correlates of fatigue were also tested.

RESULTS

MVC torque decreased to a greater extent for the HF group than LF group after the third common stage of the incremental fatiguing exercise (-15.7% ± 6.6% vs -5.9% ± 13.0%, P < 0.05), and this occurred concurrently with a higher rating of perceived exertion for HF (11.8 ± 2.5 vs 9.3 ± 2.6, P < 0.05). Subjective parameters (depression, quality of life) were worse for HF compared with LF and healthy subjects ( P < 0.001). Moreover, MVC torque loss at the final common stage and maximal heart rate explained 29% of the variance of the Modified Fatigue Impact Scale.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide novel insight into the relationship between MS-related fatigue and fatigability among PwMS. The HF group exhibited greater performance fatigability, likely contributing to a higher perceived exertion than the LF group when measured during a dynamic task.

Expression of CD40 and CD192 in Classical Monocytes in Multiple Sclerosis Patients Assessed with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Expression of CD40 and CD192 markers in different monocyte subpopulations has been reported to be altered in people with MS (pwMS). Also, functional connectivity of the corticospinal motor system pathway alterations has been proved by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). The study objective was to investigate the expression of CD40 and CD192 in classical (CD14++CD16-), intermediate CD14++CD16+ and non-classical (CD14+CD16++) blood monocyte subpopulations in pwMS, undergoing neurophysiological TMS assessment of the corticospinal tract integrity by recording motor-evoked potentials (MEPs). Radiological examination on lesion detection with MRI was performed for 23 patients with relapsing-remitting MS treated with teriflunomide. Then, immunological analysis was conducted on peripheral blood samples collected from the patients and 10 healthy controls (HC). The blood samples were incubated with anti-human CD14, CD16, CD40 and CD192 antibodies. Next, pwMS underwent neurological testing of functional disability (EDSS) and TMS assessment with recording MEPs from upper and lower extremity muscles. The results show that in comparison to HC subjects, both pwMS with normal and altered MEP findings (prolonged MEP latency or absent MEP response) had significantly decreased surface receptor expression measured (MFIs) of CD192 and increased CD40 MFI in classical monocytes, and significantly increased percentages of classical and total monocytes positive for CD40. Knowing CD40's pro-inflammatory action, and CD192 as a molecule that enables the passing of monocytes into the brain, decreased CD192 in classical monocytes could represent a beneficial anti-inflammatory parameter.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Measures, Pyramidal Score on Expanded Disability Status Scale and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Corticospinal Tract in Multiple Sclerosis

Probing the cortic ospinal tract integrity by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) could help to understand the neurophysiological correlations of multiple sclerosis (MS) symptoms. Therefore, the study objective was, first, to investigate TMS measures (resting motor threshold-RMT, motor evoked potential (MEP) latency, and amplitude) of corticospinal tract integrity in people with relapsing-remitting MS (pwMS). Then, the study examined the conformity of TMS measures with clinical disease-related (Expanded Disability Status Scale-EDSS) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) results (lesion count) in pwMS. The e-field navigated TMS, MRI, and EDSS data were collected in 23 pwMS and compared to non-clinical samples. The results show that pwMS differed from non-clinical samples in MEP latency for upper and lower extremity muscles. Also, pwMS with altered MEP latency (prolonged or absent MEP response) had higher EDSS, general and pyramidal, functional scores than pwMS with normal MEP latency finding. Furthermore, the RMT intensity for lower extremity muscles was predictive of EDSS functional pyramidal scores. TMS/MEP latency findings classified pwMS as the same as EDSS functional pyramidal scores in 70-83% of cases and were similar to the MRI results, corresponding to EDSS functional pyramidal scores in 57-65% of cases. PwMS with altered MEP latency differed from pwMS with normal MEP latency in the total number of lesions in the brain corticospinal and cervical corticospinal tract. The study provides preliminary results on the correspondence of MRI and TMS corticospinal tract evaluation results with EDSS functional pyramidal score results in MS.

Use of a physiological profile to document upper limb motor impairment in ageing and in neurological conditions

Profiling performance in the physiological domains underpinning upper limb function (such as strength, sensation, coordination) provides insight into an individual's specific impairments. This compliments the traditional medical 'diagnosis' model that is currently used in contemporary medicine. From an initial battery of 13 tests in which data were collected across the adult lifespan (n = 367, 20-95 years) and in those with neurological conditions (specifically, multiple sclerosis (n = 40), Parkinson's disease (n = 34), and stroke (n = 50)), six tests were selected to comprise a core upper limb physiological profile assessment (PPA). This comprised measures of handgrip strength, simple reaction time, finger dexterity, tactile sensation, bimanual coordination, and a functional task. Individual performance in each of these tests can be compared to a reference population score (devised from our database of healthy individuals aged under 60 years), informing the researcher or clinician how to best direct an intervention or treatment for the individual based on their specific impairment(s). Lastly, a composite score calculated from the average performance across the six tests provides a broad overview of an individual's overall upper limb function. Collectively, the upper limb PPA highlights specific impairments that are prevalent within distinct pathologies and reveals the magnitude of upper limb motor impairment specific to each condition.

Electrical stimulation for investigating and improving neuromuscular function in vivo: Historical perspective and major advances

This historical review summarizes the major advances - particularly from the last 50 years - in transcutaneous motor-level electrical stimulation, which can be used either as a tool to investigate neuromuscular function and its determinants (electrical stimulation for testing; EST) or as a therapeutic/training modality to improve neuromuscular and physical function (neuromuscular electrical stimulation; NMES). We focus on some of the most important applications of electrical stimulation in research and clinical settings, such as the investigation of acute changes, chronic adaptations and pathological alterations of neuromuscular function with EST, as well as the enhancement, preservation and restoration of muscle strength and mass with NMES treatment programs in various populations. For both EST and NMES, several major advances converge around understanding and optimizing motor unit recruitment during electrically-evoked contractions, also taking into account the influence of stimulation site (e.g., muscle belly vs nerve trunk) and type (e.g., pulse duration, frequency, and intensity). This information is equally important both in the context of mechanistic research of neuromuscular function as well as for clinicians who believe that improvements in neuromuscular function are required to provide health-related benefits to their patients.

Assessment of Motor Evoked Potentials in Multiple Sclerosis

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive technique mainly used for the assessment of corticospinal tract integrity and excitability of the primary motor cortices. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) play a pivotal role in TMS studies. TMS clinical guidelines, concerning the use and interpretation of MEPs in diagnosing and monitoring corticospinal tract integrity in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS), were established almost ten years ago and refer mainly to the use of TMS implementation; this comprises the magnetic stimulator connected to a standard EMG unit, with the positioning of the coil performed by using the external landmarks on the head. The aim of the present work was to conduct a narrative literature review on the MEP assessment and outcome measures in clinical and research settings, assessed by TMS Methodological characteristics of different TMS system implementations (TMS without navigation, line-navigated TMS and e-field-navigated TMS); these were discussed in the context of mapping the corticospinal tract integrity in MS. An MEP assessment of two case reports, by using an e-field-navigated TMS, was presented; the results of the correspondence between the e-field-navigated TMS with MRI, and the EDSS classifications were presented. Practical and technical guiding principles for the improvement of TMS studies in MEP assessment for MS are discussed, suggesting the use of e-field TMS assessment in the sense that it can improve the accuracy of corticospinal tract integrity testing by providing a more objective correspondence of the neurophysiological (e-field-navigated TMS) and clinical (Expanded Disability Status Scale-EDSS) classifications.

How is neuromuscular fatigability affected by perceived fatigue and disability in people with multiple sclerosis?

Whereas fatigue is recognized to be the main complaint of patients with multiple sclerosis (PwMS), its etiology, and particularly the role of resistance to fatigability and its interplay with disability level, remains unclear. The purposes of this review were to (i) clarify the relationship between fatigue/disability and neuromuscular performance in PwMS and (ii) review the corticospinal and muscular mechanisms of voluntary muscle contraction that are altered by multiple sclerosis, and how they may be influenced by disability level or fatigue. Neuromuscular function at rest and during exercise are more susceptible to impairement, due to deficits in voluntary activation, when the disability is greater. Fatigue level is related to resistance to fatigability but not to neuromuscular function at rest. Neurophysiological parameters related to signal transmission such as central motor conduction time, motor evoked potentials amplitude and latency are affected by disability and fatigue levels but their relative role in the impaired production of torque remain unclear. Nonetheless, cortical reorganization represents the most likely explanation for the heightened fatigability during exercise for highly fatigued and/or disabled PwMS. Further research is needed to decipher how the fatigue and disability could influence fatigability for an ecological task, especially at the corticospinal level.

Study on the Diagnostic Value of Neuroelectrophysiological Examination in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Objective

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with unknown causes involving upper and lower motor neurons. Our study aimed to explore the diagnostic value of neuroelectrophysiological examination in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Methods

A total of 64 patients admitted to our hospital from January 2014 to December 2020 were selected as ALS group. Additionally, 64 normal healthy people in the same period were selected as the control group. Electrophysiological tests were performed on all personnel involved in the study, and the results and parameter changes of different personnel were compared and analyzed.

Results

There was a statistical difference between the EMG data of clinically confirmed ALS and the proposed ALS and possible ALS (p < 0.05). The abnormality of confirmed ALS was particularly obvious, and the overall abnormal rate of EMG in ALS was 85%. The CMCT of the upper and lower limbs of clinically diagnosed ALS, suspected ALS, and possible ALS were longer than that of the normal group (p < 0.05). There was no significant statistical difference between clinically diagnosed ALS and suspected ALS (p > 0.05), and there was a difference between clinically diagnosed ALS and possible ALS (p < 0.05). In ALS group, the frequency of F wave decreased, which may be related to the involvement of F wave conduction pathway and the degree of lower motor neuron involvement (p < 0.05). In addition, the amplitudes of F and H waves increased, which was related to the involvement of upper motor neurons (p < 0.05). In ALS group, SCV was hardly involved, and CMAP decreased significantly, which was positively correlated with the degree of muscular atrophy and muscle strength decline (p < 0.05). The sensitivity of electrophysiological detection was 76.56%, the specificity was 78.33%, and the AUC was 0.8578.

Conclusion

Patients with clinically suspected ALS should undergo electrophysiological testing as soon as possible, which is conducive to the early diagnosis and differential diagnosis of ALS. This trial is registered with ChiCTR2100046535.

Can strength training modify voluntary activation, contractile properties and spasticity in Multiple Sclerosis?: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

A randomized controlled trial was conducted to analyze the effects of 10 weeks of strength training (ST) on voluntary activation, muscle activity, muscle contractile properties, and spasticity in people with MS.

METHODS

30 participants were randomized to either an experimental [EG](n=18) or a control [CG](n=12) group. The EG carried out 10-weeks of ST, where the concentric phase at maximum voluntary velocity. Muscle activity of the vastus lateralis (surface electromyography (sEMG) during the first 200 ms of contraction), maximal neural drive (peak sEMG), voluntary activation (central activation ratio), and muscle contractile function (via electrical stimulation) of the knee extensor muscles, as well as spasticity, were measured pre- and post-intervention.

RESULTS

The EG showed a significant improvement with differences between groups in muscle activity in EMG_0-200 (p=0.031;ES=-0.8) and maximal neural drive (p=0.038;ES=-0.8), as well as improvement in the ST group with a trend towards significance in EMG_0-100 (p=0.068;ES=-0.6). CAR increased after intervention in ST group (p=0.010;ES=-0.4). Spasticity also improved in the ST group, with differences between group after intervention, in first swing excursion (right leg: p=0.006;ES=-1.4, left leg: p=0.031;ES=-1.2), number of oscillations (right leg: p=0.001;ES=-0.4, left leg: p=0.031;ES=-0.4) and duration of oscillations (left leg: p=0.002; ES=-0.6). Contractile properties remain unchanged in both ST group and control group.

CONCLUSIONS

10 weeks of ST improves muscle activity during the first 200 ms of contraction, maximal neural conduction, and spasticity in people with MS. However, ST does not produce adaptations in muscle contractile properties in people with MS.

Objectively assessed physiological, physical, and cognitive function along with patient-reported outcomes during the first 2 years of Alemtuzumab treatment in multiple sclerosis: a prospective observational study

INTRODUCTION

In persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS), little evidence exist on the effects of Alemtuzumab on physiological, physical, and cognitive function along with patient-reported outcomes, despite these domains are being rated as highly important. Therefore, our purpose was to perform a prospective observational study to examine these outlined outcomes during the first two years of Alemtuzumab treatment in pwMS.

METHODS

In n = 17 relapsing-remitting pwMS, physiological function [body composition; bone mineral content; muscle strength; aerobic capacity], physical function [6-min walk test (6MWT, primary outcome); timed 25 ft walk test (T25FWT); six spot step test (SSST); 9-step stair ascend (9SSA); timed up and go test (TUG); 5 × sit to stand test (5STS)], cognitive function [selective reminding test (SRT); symbol digit modalities test (SDMT)], and patient-reported outcomes [multiple sclerosis impact scale-29 (MSIS29); 12-item multiple sclerosis walking scale (MSWS12); modified fatigue impact scale (MFIS); hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS)] were assessed prior to Alemtuzumab treatment initiation as well as 3, 6, 12, and 24 months into the treatment.

RESULTS

Improvements were observed at 24-month follow-up in T25FWT (+ 8%), SSST (+ 10%), SDMT (+ 5.2 points, 53% improved more than the clinical cut-off score) and SRT, whereas the primary outcome 6MWT, and all other remaining outcomes, remained stable throughout the Alemtuzumab treatment period.

CONCLUSION

The present findings suggest that Alemtuzumab treatment in relapsing-remitting pwMS can improve certain domains of physical function (short distance walking) and cognitive function (processing speed, memory), and furthermore stabilize physiological and physical function along with patient-reported outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Registered at clinicaltrials.gov: NCT03806387.

Improving reproducibility of motor evoked potentials in mice

BACKGROUND

In preclinical research involving murine models of neurological diseases, Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) can detect pathological alterations in nerve conduction throughout the cortico-spinal tract. In mice, MEPs elicited by electrical stimulation of the motor cortex can be performed with epicranial or subdermal electrodes such as implanted screws or removable needles, which are associated with invasive surgery and variability in placement of the stimulating electrodes, respectively.

METHODS

We compared MEPs induced by epicranial or subcutaneous stimulation with a non-invasive surface cup electrode over five recording sessions, in healthy C57BL/6 mice. Additionally, using surface stimulation, we examined the recordings obtained with intramuscular needles or surface electrodes to understand if MEP reproducibility could be improved.

RESULTS

Resting motor threshold (RMT), MEP latency and amplitude were comparable among the different stimulation methods. Epicranial, subcutaneous and surface stimulation techniques presented good repeatability over time, with surface stimulation showing a significantly reduced inter-session variability. Compared with intramuscular needles, MEPs recorded with surface electrode showed reduced peak-to-peak amplitude at all timepoints. RMT and MEP latency were comparable with both recording methods. On the other hand, amplitudes recorded with the surface electrode presented a significantly lower inter-session variance, resulting in improved repeatability.

CONCLUSION

Overall, there is evidence for highly reproducible results using different stimulating methods, with indication for reduced inter-session variability for surface stimulation. Moreover, MEP recording with surface electrode provided a decrease in amplitude variability over time, indicating improved measurement stability when considering amplitude as functional outcome in longitudinal studies.

Clinical, Neurophysiological, and MRI Markers of Fampridine Responsiveness in Multiple Sclerosis-An Explorative Study

Objective: Persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS), already established as responders or non-responders to Fampridine treatment, were compared in terms of disability measures, physical and cognitive performance tests, neurophysiology, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) outcomes in a 1-year explorative longitudinal study. Materials and Methods: Data from a 1-year longitudinal study were analyzed. Examinations consisted of the timed 25-foot walk test (T25FW), six spot step test (SSST), nine-hole peg test (9-HPT), five times sit-to-stand test (5-STS), symbol digit modalities test (SDMT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) elicited motor evoked potentials (MEP) examining central motor conduction times (CMCT), peripheral motor conduction times (PMCT) and their amplitudes, electroneuronography (ENG) of the lower extremities, and brain structural MRI measures. Results: Forty-one responders and eight non-responders to Fampridine treatment were examined. There were no intergroup differences except for the PMCT, where non-responders had prolonged conduction times compared to responders to Fampridine. Six spot step test was associated with CMCT throughout the study. After 1 year, CMCT was further prolonged and cortical MEP amplitudes decreased in both groups, while PMCT and ENG did not change. Throughout the study, CMCT was associated with the expanded disability status scale (EDSS) and 12-item multiple sclerosis walking scale (MSWS-12), while SDMT was associated with number of T2-weighted lesions, lesion load, and lesion load normalized to brain volume. Conclusions: Peripheral motor conduction time is prolonged in non-responders to Fampridine when compared to responders. Transcranial magnetic stimulation-elicited MEPs and SDMT can be used as markers of disability progression and lesion activity visualized by MRI, respectively. Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03401307.

Distinguishing between Fatigue and Fatigability in Multiple Sclerosis

Fatigue is one of the most common debilitating symptoms reported by persons with multiple sclerosis (MS). It reflects feelings of tiredness, lack of energy, low motivation, and difficulty in concentrating. It can be measured at a specific instant in time as a perception that arises from interoceptive networks involved in the regulation of homeostasis. Such ratings indicate the state level of fatigue and likely reflect an inability to correct deviations from a balanced homeostatic state. In contrast, the trait level of fatigue is quantified in terms of work capacity (fatigability), which can be either estimated (perceived fatigability) or measured (objective fatigability). Clinically, fatigue is most often quantified with questionnaires that require respondents to estimate their past capacity to perform several cognitive, physical, and psychosocial tasks. These retrospective estimates provide a measure of perceived fatigability. In contrast, the change in an outcome variable during the actual performance of a task provides an objective measure of fatigability. Perceived and objective fatigability do not assess the same underlying construct. Persons with MS who report elevated trait levels of fatigue exhibit deficits in interoceptive networks (insula and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex), including increased functional connectivity during challenging tasks. The state and trait levels of fatigue reported by an individual can be modulated by reward and pain pathways. Understanding the distinction between fatigue and fatigability is critical for the development of effective strategies to reduce the burden of the symptom for individuals with MS.

Lower extremity muscle power - A critical determinant of physical function in aging and multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

In aging, lower extremity muscle power is undoubtedly one of the most important parameters of neuromuscular function implicating lower extremity physical function (e.g. walking capacity). However, no previous studies have examined the combined effects of aging and multiple sclerosis (MS) on lower extremity muscle power concomitant with lower extremity physical function. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine potential decrements in pwMS vs. healthy controls (HC) across the adult lifespan in these outcomes.

METHODS

In the present explorative cross-sectional study, n = 42 pwMS (females n = 29 (69%); age = 53 ± 12 years (mean ± SD), range 31-78; patient determined disease steps score = 3.7 ± 1.7, range 0-7) and n = 49 age-matched HC (females n = 34 (69%); age = 56 ± 16 years, range 24-78) were enrolled, and divided into groups of young (≤ 44 years), middle-aged (45-59 years), and old (≥ 60 years). Muscle power was obtained from bilateral leg press (Power_LegPressPeak) and maximal chair rise (Power_ChairRise) using a linear encoder. Associations were assessed between muscle power and measurements of lower extremity physical function (5 x sit-to-stand (5STS); timed 25-foot-walk-test (T25FWT)).

RESULTS

Muscle power was reduced in pwMS vs. HC (Power_LegPressPeak -23[-34:-12]% (mean[95%CI]); Power_ChairRise -26[-35:-17]%) and was negatively associated with advanced age in both pwMS (decline per decade -0.40 W.kg^-1 and -2.53 W.kg^-1, respectively) and HC (decline per decade -0.42 W.kg^-1 and -2.03 W.kg^-1, respectively). Muscle power was strongly associated with physical function in pwMS (r²_range = 0.45-0.61, p < 0.01) yet only moderately associated in HC (r²_range = 0.18-0.39, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

The combined effects of MS and aging reveal substantial decrements in lower extremity muscle power that is accompanied by (and strongly associated with) decrements in lower extremity physical function. Consequently, lower extremity muscle power should be viewed as a clinically important factor (i.e. a critical determinant of lower extremity physical function) in pwMS. We propose that lower extremity muscle power should be specifically targeted by preventive and rehabilitative exercise strategies, especially in older pwMS.

A cross-sectional comparison of performance, neurophysiological and MRI outcomes of responders and non-responders to fampridine treatment in multiple sclerosis - An explorative study

OBJECTIVE

To compare baseline physical and cognitive performance, neurophysiological, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) outcomes and examinetheir interrelationship inparticipants with Multiple Sclerosis (MS), already established aseither responder or non-responder to Fampridine treatment, andto examine associationswiththe expanded disability status scale (EDSS) and 12-item MS walking scale (MSWS-12).

METHODS

Baseline data from an explorative longitudinal observational study were analyzed. Participants underwent the Timed 25-Foot Walk Test (T25FW), Six Spot Step Test (SSST), Nine-Hole Peg Test, Five Times Sit-to-Stand Test, Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), neurophysiological testing, including central motor conduction time (CMCT), peripheral motor conduction time (PMCT), motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudesand electroneuronographyof the lower extremities, and brain MRI (brain volume, number and volume of T2-weighted lesions and lesion load normalized to brain volume).

RESULTS

41 responders and 8 non-responders were examined. There were no intergroup differences inphysical performance, cognitive, neurophysiological, andMRI outcomes (p > 0.05).CMCT was associated withT25FW, SSST, EDSS, and MSWS-12,(p < 0.05). SDMT was associated with the number and volume of T2-weighted lesions, and lesion load normalized to brain volume (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

No differences were identified between responders and non-responders to Fampridine treatment regarding physical and cognitive performance, neurophysiological or MRI outcomes. The results call for cautious interpretation and further large-scale studies are needed to expand ourunderstanding of underlying mechanisms discriminating Fampridine responders and non-responders.CMCT may be used as a marker of disability and walking impairment, while SDMT was associated with white matter lesions estimated by MRI. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03401307.

Multiple sclerosis-related fatigue: the role of impaired corticospinal responses and heightened exercise fatigability

It is unclear whether motor fatigability and perceived fatigue share a common pathophysiology in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS). This cross-sectional investigation explored the relationship between the mechanisms of motor fatigability from cycling and fatigue severity in PwMS. Thirteen highly fatigued (HF) and thirteen nonfatigued (LF) PwMS and thirteen healthy controls (CON) completed a step test until volitional exhaustion on an innovative cycle ergometer. Neuromuscular evaluations involving femoral nerve electrical stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation were performed every 3 min throughout cycling. One-way ANOVA at baseline and exhaustion uncovered evidence of consistently smaller motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes (P = 0.011) and prolonged MEP latencies (P = 0.041) in HF as well as a greater decline in maximal voluntary contraction force (HF: 63 ± 13%; LF: 75 ± 13%; CON: 73 ± 11% of pre; P = 0.037) and potentiated twitch force (HF: 35 ± 13%; LF: 50 ± 16%; CON: 47 ± 17% of pre; P = 0.049) in HF at volitional exhaustion. Hierarchical regression determined that fatigue severity on the Fatigue Severity Scale was predicted by prolonged MEP latencies (change in r² = 0.389), elevated peripheral muscle fatigability (change in r² = 0.183), and depressive symptoms (change in r² = 0.213). These findings indicate that MS-related fatigue is distinguished by disrupted corticospinal responsiveness, which could suggest progressive pathology, but fatigability from whole body exercise and depressive symptoms also influence perceptions of fatigue in PwMS.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The etiology of fatigability from whole body exercise was examined for the first time to accurately elucidate the relationship between fatigue and fatigability in multiple sclerosis (MS). Compromised corticospinal responsiveness predicted fatigue severity, providing a novel, objective indicator of fatigue in MS. Although the impaired corticomotor transmission did not aggravate muscle activation in this group of people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) of lower disability, heightened muscle fatigability was seen to contribute to perceptions of fatigue in PwMS.