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Glaser J, Iranzo J, Borensztein M, Marinucci M, Gualtieri A, Jouhanneau C, Teissandier A, Gaston-Massuet C, Bourc'his D. The imprinted Zdbf2 gene finely tunes control of feeding and growth in neonates. eLife 2022; 11:65641. [PMID: 35049495 PMCID: PMC8809892 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic imprinting refers to the mono-allelic and parent-specific expression of a subset of genes. While long recognized for their role in embryonic development, imprinted genes have recently emerged as important modulators of postnatal physiology, notably through hypothalamus-driven functions. Here, using mouse models of loss, gain and parental inversion of expression, we report that the paternally expressed Zdbf2 gene controls neonatal growth in mice, in a dose-sensitive but parent-of-origin-independent manner. We further found that Zdbf2-KO neonates failed to fully activate hypothalamic circuits that stimulate appetite, and suffered milk deprivation and diminished circulating Insulin Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1). Consequently, only half of Zdbf2-KO pups survived the first days after birth and those surviving were smaller. This study demonstrates that precise imprinted gene dosage is essential for vital physiological functions at the transition from intra- to extra-uterine life, here the adaptation to oral feeding and optimized body weight gain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Glaser
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Julian Iranzo
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Maud Borensztein
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Mattia Marinucci
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Angelica Gualtieri
- Centre for Endocrinology, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Aurélie Teissandier
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | | | - Deborah Bourc'his
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
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2
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Tanaka K, Besson V, Rivagorda M, Oury F, Marazzi G, Sassoon DA. Paternally expressed gene 3 (Pw1/Peg3) promotes sexual dimorphism in metabolism and behavior. PLoS Genet 2022; 18:e1010003. [PMID: 35025875 PMCID: PMC8791484 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The paternally expressed gene 3 (Pw1/Peg3) is a mammalian-specific parentally imprinted gene expressed in stem/progenitor cells of the brain and endocrine tissues. Here, we compared phenotypic characteristics in Pw1/Peg3 deficient male and female mice. Our findings indicate that Pw1/Peg3 is a key player for the determination of sexual dimorphism in metabolism and behavior. Mice carrying a paternally inherited Pw1/Peg3 mutant allele manifested postnatal deficits in GH/IGF dependent growth before weaning, sex steroid dependent masculinization during puberty, and insulin dependent fat accumulation in adulthood. As a result, Pw1/Peg3 deficient mice develop a sex-dependent global shift of body metabolism towards accelerated adiposity, diabetic-like insulin resistance, and fatty liver. Furthermore, Pw1/Peg3 deficient males displayed reduced social dominance and competitiveness concomitant with alterations in the vasopressinergic architecture in the brain. This study demonstrates that Pw1/Peg3 provides an epigenetic context that promotes male-specific characteristics through sex steroid pathways during postnatal development. Pw1/Peg3 is under parental specific epigenetic regulation. We propose that Pw1/Peg3 confers a selective advantage in mammals by regulating sexual dimorphism. To address this question, we examined the consequences of Pw1/Peg3 loss of function in mice in an age- and sex-dependent context and found that Pw1/Peg3 mutants display reduced sexual dimorphism in growth, metabolism and behaviors. Our findings support the intralocus sexual conflict model of genomic imprinting where it contributes in sexual differentiation. Furthermore, our observations provide a unifying role of sex steroid signaling as a common property of Pw1/Peg3 expressing stem/progenitor cells and differentiated endocrine cells, both of which remain proliferative in response to gonadal hormones in adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karo Tanaka
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), INSERM U1166, University of Pierre and Marie Curie Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Vanessa Besson
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), INSERM U1166, University of Pierre and Marie Curie Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Manon Rivagorda
- Hormonal Regulation of Brain Development and Functions, INSERM U1151, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, Paris, France
| | - Franck Oury
- Hormonal Regulation of Brain Development and Functions, INSERM U1151, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, Paris, France
| | - Giovanna Marazzi
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), INSERM U1166, University of Pierre and Marie Curie Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - David A. Sassoon
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), INSERM U1166, University of Pierre and Marie Curie Paris VI, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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3
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Prasasya R, Grotheer KV, Siracusa LD, Bartolomei MS. Temple syndrome and Kagami-Ogata syndrome: clinical presentations, genotypes, models and mechanisms. Hum Mol Genet 2021; 29:R107-R116. [PMID: 32592473 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Temple syndrome (TS) and Kagami-Ogata syndrome (KOS) are imprinting disorders caused by absence or overexpression of genes within a single imprinted cluster on human chromosome 14q32. TS most frequently arises from maternal UPD14 or epimutations/deletions on the paternal chromosome, whereas KOS most frequently arises from paternal UPD14 or epimutations/deletions on the maternal chromosome. In this review, we describe the clinical symptoms and genetic/epigenetic features of this imprinted region. The locus encompasses paternally expressed protein-coding genes (DLK1, RTL1 and DIO3) and maternally expressed lncRNAs (MEG3/GTL2, RTL1as and MEG8), as well as numerous miRNAs and snoRNAs. Control of expression is complex, with three differentially methylated regions regulating germline, placental and tissue-specific transcription. The strong conserved synteny between mouse chromosome 12aF1 and human chromosome 14q32 has enabled the use of mouse models to elucidate imprinting mechanisms and decipher the contribution of genes to the symptoms of TS and KOS. In this review, we describe relevant mouse models and highlight their value to better inform treatment options for long-term management of TS and KOS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rexxi Prasasya
- Epigenetics Institute, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kristen V Grotheer
- Department of Medical Sciences, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine at Seton Hall University, 340 Kingsland Street, Building 123, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
| | - Linda D Siracusa
- Department of Medical Sciences, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine at Seton Hall University, 340 Kingsland Street, Building 123, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA
| | - Marisa S Bartolomei
- Epigenetics Institute, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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4
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Yu D, Wang J, Zou H, Feng T, Chen L, Li J, Qi X, Li Z, Duan X, Xu C, Zhang L, Long X, Lan J, Chen C, Wang C, Xu X, Ren J, Zhao Y, Hu X, Lian Z, Men H, Pan D, Li N, Capecchi MR, Du X, Zhao Y, Wu S. Silencing of retrotransposon-derived imprinted gene RTL1 is the main cause for postimplantational failures in mammalian cloning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E11071-E11080. [PMID: 30381455 PMCID: PMC6255163 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1814514115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Substantial rates of fetal loss plague all in vitro procedures involving embryo manipulations, including human-assisted reproduction, and are especially problematic for mammalian cloning where over 90% of reconstructed nuclear transfer embryos are typically lost during pregnancy. However, the epigenetic mechanism of these pregnancy failures has not been well described. Here we performed methylome and transcriptome analyses of pig induced pluripotent stem cells and associated cloned embryos, and revealed that aberrant silencing of imprinted genes, in particular the retrotransposon-derived RTL1 gene, is the principal epigenetic cause of pregnancy failure. Remarkably, restoration of RTL1 expression in pig induced pluripotent stem cells rescued fetal loss. Furthermore, in other mammals, including humans, low RTL1 levels appear to be the main epigenetic cause of pregnancy failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Huiying Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
- Embryo Biotechnology and Reproduction Laboratory, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Tao Feng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Lei Chen
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, 402460 Chongqing, China
| | - Jia Li
- Center for Epigenetics & Disease Prevention, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Xiaolan Qi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Zhifang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyue Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Chunlong Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Liang Zhang
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, 402460 Chongqing, China
| | - Xi Long
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, 402460 Chongqing, China
| | - Jing Lan
- Chongqing Academy of Animal Science, 402460 Chongqing, China
| | - Chao Chen
- Tang Tang Biomedical Technology (Beijing) Co., 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of Computer and Technology, Tsinghua University, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Xinyu Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Jilong Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Yiqiang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoxiang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Zhengxing Lian
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agriculture University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Hongsheng Men
- Rat Resource and Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201
| | - Dengke Pan
- Embryo Biotechnology and Reproduction Laboratory, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Ning Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Mario R Capecchi
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Xuguang Du
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China;
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agriculture University, 100193 Beijing, China
| | - Yaofeng Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China;
| | - Sen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, China;
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Hernandez A, Stohn JP. The Type 3 Deiodinase: Epigenetic Control of Brain Thyroid Hormone Action and Neurological Function. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19061804. [PMID: 29921775 PMCID: PMC6032375 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19061804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) influence multiple processes in the developing and adult central nervous system, and their local availability needs to be maintained at levels that are tailored to the requirements of their biological targets. The local complement of TH transporters, deiodinase enzymes, and receptors is critical to ensure specific levels of TH action in neural cells. The type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase (DIO3) inactivates THs and is highly present in the developing and adult brain, where it limits their availability and action. DIO3 deficiency in mice results in a host of neurodevelopmental and behavioral abnormalities, demonstrating the deleterious effects of TH excess, and revealing the critical role of DIO3 in the regulation of TH action in the brain. The fact the Dio3 is an imprinted gene and that its allelic expression pattern varies across brain regions and during development introduces an additional level of control to deliver specific levels of hormone action in the central nervous system (CNS). The sensitive epigenetic nature of the mechanisms controlling the genomic imprinting of Dio3 renders brain TH action particularly susceptible to disruption due to exogenous treatments and environmental exposures, with potential implications for the etiology of human neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Hernandez
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Maine Medical Center, Scarborough, ME 04074, USA.
- Graduate School for Biomedical Science and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
| | - J Patrizia Stohn
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Maine Medical Center, Scarborough, ME 04074, USA.
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6
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García-Gallastegui P, Luzuriaga J, Aurrekoetxea M, Baladrón V, Ruiz-Hidalgo MJ, García-Ramírez JJ, Laborda J, Unda F, Ibarretxe G. Reduced salivary gland size and increased presence of epithelial progenitor cells in DLK1-deficient mice. Cell Tissue Res 2015; 364:513-525. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-015-2344-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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7
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From Pre-Clinical Studies to Clinical Trials: Generation of Novel Therapies for Pregnancy Complications. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:12907-24. [PMID: 26062129 PMCID: PMC4490478 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160612907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Complications of pregnancy represent a significant disease burden, with both immediate and lasting consequences for mother and baby. Two key pregnancy complications, fetal growth restriction (FGR) and preeclampsia (PE), together affect around 10%–15% of all pregnancies worldwide. Despite this high incidence, there are currently no therapies available to treat these pregnancy disorders. Early delivery remains the only intervention to reduce the risk of severe maternal complications and/or stillbirth of the baby; however early delivery itself is associated with increased risk of neonatal mortality and morbidity. As such, there is a pressing need to develop new and effective treatments that can prevent or treat FGR and PE. Animal models have been essential in identifying and screening potential new therapies in this field. In this review, we address recent progress that has been made in developing therapeutic strategies for pregnancy disorders, some of which are now entering clinical trials.
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8
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Howard M, Charalambous M. Molecular basis of imprinting disorders affecting chromosome 14: lessons from murine models. Reproduction 2015; 149:R237-49. [DOI: 10.1530/rep-14-0660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Uniparental inheritance of chromosome 14q32 causes developmental failure during gestation and early postnatal development due to mis-expression of a cluster of imprinted genes under common epigenetic control. Two syndromes associated with chromosome 14q32 abnormalities have been described, Kagami–Ogata and Temple syndromes. Both of these syndromes are characterised by specific impairments of intrauterine development, placentation and early postnatal survival. Such abnormalities arise because the processes of intrauterine growth and postnatal adaptation are critically modulated by the dosage of imprinted genes in the chromosome 14q32 cluster. Much of our understanding of how the imprinted genes in this cluster are regulated, as well as their individual functions in the molecular pathways controlling growth and postnatal adaptation, has come from murine models. Mouse chromosome 12qF1 contains an imprinted region syntenic to human chromosome 14q32, collectively referred to as the Dlk1–Dio3 cluster. In this review, we will summarise the wealth of information derived from animal models of chromosome 12 imprinted gene mis-regulation, and explore the relationship between the functions of individual genes and the phenotypic result of their mis-expression. As there is often a considerable overlap between the functions of genes in the Dlk1–Dio3 cluster, we propose that the expression dosage of these genes is controlled by common regulatory mechanisms to co-ordinate the timing of growth and postnatal adaptation. While the diseases associated with mis-regulated chromosome 14 imprinting are rare, studies carried out in mice on the functions of the affected genes as well as their normal regulatory mechanisms have revealed new mechanistic pathways for the control of growth and survival in early life.
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Insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptors are required for normal expression of imprinted genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:14512-7. [PMID: 25246545 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1415475111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to signaling through the classical tyrosine kinase pathway, recent studies indicate that insulin receptors (IRs) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) receptors (IGF1Rs) can emit signals in the unoccupied state through some yet-to-be-defined noncanonical pathways. Here we show that cells lacking both IRs and IGF1Rs exhibit a major decrease in expression of multiple imprinted genes and microRNAs, which is partially mimicked by inactivation of IR alone in mouse embryonic fibroblasts or in vivo in brown fat in mice. This down-regulation is accompanied by changes in DNA methylation of differentially methylated regions related to these loci. Different from a loss of imprinting pattern, loss of IR and IGF1R causes down-regulated expression of both maternally and paternally expressed imprinted genes and microRNAs, including neighboring reciprocally imprinted genes. Thus, the unoccupied IR and IGF1R generate previously unidentified signals that control expression of imprinted genes and miRNAs through transcriptional mechanisms that are distinct from classical imprinting control.
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10
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Labialle S, Marty V, Bortolin-Cavaillé ML, Hoareau-Osman M, Pradère JP, Valet P, Martin PGP, Cavaillé J. The miR-379/miR-410 cluster at the imprinted Dlk1-Dio3 domain controls neonatal metabolic adaptation. EMBO J 2014; 33:2216-30. [PMID: 25124681 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201387038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, birth entails complex metabolic adjustments essential for neonatal survival. Using a mouse knockout model, we identify crucial biological roles for the miR-379/miR-410 cluster within the imprinted Dlk1-Dio3 region during this metabolic transition. The miR-379/miR-410 locus, also named C14MC in humans, is the largest known placental mammal-specific miRNA cluster, whose 39 miRNA genes are expressed only from the maternal allele. We found that heterozygote pups with a maternal--but not paternal--deletion of the miRNA cluster display partially penetrant neonatal lethality with defects in the maintenance of energy homeostasis. This maladaptive metabolic response is caused, at least in part, by profound changes in the activation of the neonatal hepatic gene expression program, pointing to as yet unidentified regulatory pathways that govern this crucial metabolic transition in the newborn's liver. Not only does our study highlight the physiological importance of miRNA genes that recently evolved in placental mammal lineages but it also unveils additional layers of RNA-mediated gene regulation at the Dlk1-Dio3 domain that impose parent-of-origin effects on metabolic control at birth and have likely contributed to mammal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Labialle
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, UPS Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France CNRS LBME, UMR5099, Toulouse, France
| | - Virginie Marty
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, UPS Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France CNRS LBME, UMR5099, Toulouse, France
| | - Marie-Line Bortolin-Cavaillé
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, UPS Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France CNRS LBME, UMR5099, Toulouse, France
| | - Magali Hoareau-Osman
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, UPS Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France CNRS LBME, UMR5099, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Pradère
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1048, Toulouse, France Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires (I2MC), Université de Toulouse Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Philippe Valet
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), U1048, Toulouse, France Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires (I2MC), Université de Toulouse Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Pascal G P Martin
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, UPS Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France CNRS LBME, UMR5099, Toulouse, France INRA UMR1331 TOXALIM (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Toulouse, France Université de Toulouse INP UPS TOXALIM, Toulouse, France
| | - Jérôme Cavaillé
- Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire Eucaryote, UPS Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France CNRS LBME, UMR5099, Toulouse, France
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