Pruritus secondary to primary biliary cholangitis: a review of the pathophysiology and management with phototherapy

Pruritus in Chronic Cholestatic Liver Diseases, Especially in Primary Biliary Cholangitis: A Narrative Review

Patients with chronic cholestatic liver diseases often experience itch and struggle with this symptom. We discuss the mechanism of itch in patients with chronic cholestatic liver diseases, such as primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and others, and their therapies, including ileal bile acid transporter (IBAT) inhibitors. In patients with PBC, there are high serum/plasma concentrations of multiple factors, including bile salts, bilirubin, endogenous opioids, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), autotaxin, and histamine. Bile salts, bilirubin, LPA, and autotaxin affect itch mediators in the skin and sensory nerves, while the endogenous opioid balance affects mediators in the spinal cord. Itch is sensitized by both the peripheral and central nervous systems. Both mechanisms are involved in itch in patients with chronic cholestatic liver disease. Although IBAT inhibitors have been approved for use in pediatric cholestatic conditions, such as progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis and Alagille syndrome, IBAT inhibition seems to be a promising treatment for chronic refractory itch in patients with PBC. A traditional non-systematic review results in this narrative review. Multidisciplinary cooperation, involving hepatologists, dermatologists, and pharmacists, could provide better treatment for PBC patients suffering from refractory itch. In conclusion, we summarized the existing knowledge on itch caused by chronic cholestatic liver diseases, especially in PBC with a focus on the mechanisms and therapies. This narrative review provides the mechanisms and therapeutic options for itch in patients with chronic cholestatic liver diseases.

Efficacy and safety of narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy for prurigo nodularis: a tertiary center experience

BACKGROUND

Prurigo nodularis is a chronic pruritic dermatosis and narrowband-UVB (NB-UVB) phototherapy is considered an effective and safe treatment option in patients with multiple comorbidities.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, the authors aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of NB-UVB phototherapy in the management of prurigo nodularis and to compare response rates according to lesions localization.

METHODS

Thirty prurigo nodularis patients who had been treated with NB-UVB phototherapy were included in this study. The data for this study were retrieved retrospectively from patient follow-up forms in the phototherapy unit.

RESULTS

NB-UVB phototherapy led to a complete response (CR) in 24 (80%) patients while partial response (PR) was achieved in 6 (20%) patients. Regarding prurigo nodularis localization, the CR rate was statistically higher in those with diffuse and central involvement (p < 0.05). Erythema and/or pruritus were observed in 4 (13.3%) patients with prurigo nodularis.

STUDY LIMITATIONS

This study is limited because it is single-centered and has a retrospective design.

CONCLUSIONS

NB-UVB phototherapy is an effective and safe treatment option for prurigo nodularis patients especially those with multiple comorbidities and using several medications. Patients with diffuse and central involvement may respond better to phototherapy than those with peripheral involvement.

Itching for Answers: A Comprehensive Review of Cholestatic Pruritus Treatments

Cholestasis is a clinical and laboratory syndrome indicating impaired bile production or excretion. One of the hallmark symptoms of cholestasis is pruritus. Itch can be severe and debilitating for patients, impacting their quality of life similarly to pain, and, in some cases, it can be refractory. Current therapies like anion exchange resins and rifampicin, offer partial relief but with side effects. Effective, well-tolerated treatments are urgently needed. This literature review examines existing options (bile acid sequestrants, antihistamines, opioid antagonists, sertraline, and rifampicin) and explores novel therapies (monoclonal antibodies, PPAR agonists, and bile-acid-based therapies). We analyze mechanisms, limitations, and adverse effects to aid clinicians and researchers. Novel approaches include monoclonal antibodies to inhibit bile recirculation and PPAR agonists targeting pruritus signaling. Despite the limited current options, ongoing research promises better treatments for cholestatic pruritus, addressing its distressing impact. In summary, cholestasis-associated pruritus poses a significant challenge with limited treatments. Advancements in understanding its pathophysiology offer hope for more effective therapies in the future.

Serum bile acid change correlates with improvement in pruritus in patients with primary biliary cholangitis receiving linerixibat

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Total serum bile acid (TSBA) levels are elevated in patients with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and may mediate cholestatic pruritus. Linerixibat, an ileal bile acid transporter inhibitor, improved pruritus in patients with PBC. We explored the relationship between linerixibat dose, TSBA concentration, and pruritus.

METHODS

Data from Phase 1/2 trials were used to develop a population kinetic-pharmacodynamic model to characterize the linerixibat dose-TSBA relationship. Individual Bayesian parameter estimates for participants in the GLIMMER study were used to derive the area under the TSBA concentration curve over 24 h (AUC0-24). Time-matched post hoc estimates of AUC0-24 were correlated with pruritus reported on a 0-10 numerical rating scale. Baseline TSBA concentration was correlated with change from baseline (ΔBL) in monthly itch score (MIS). ΔBL in model-estimated TSBA AUC0-24 was correlated with time-matched ΔBL in weekly itch score (WIS) or MIS.

RESULTS

Linerixibat dose dependently reduced TSBA AUC0-24, reaching steady state after 5 days. Baseline TSBA levels in GLIMMER did not correlate with ΔBL in MIS. ΔBL in TSBA AUC0-24 correlated with improved WIS over 12 weeks of treatment (r = 0.52, p < 0.0001). Of participants with a ≥30% decrease in TSBA AUC0-24, 60% were pruritus responders (≥2-point improvement in WIS from baseline).

CONCLUSIONS

Linerixibat treatment leads to rapid, dose-dependent TSBA reductions. Baseline TSBA levels do not correlate with on-treatment pruritus change, suggesting they do not predict linerixibat response. Change in TSBA AUC0-24 correlates significantly with, and can be predictive of, pruritus improvement in patients with PBC.

Population Dose-Response-Time Analysis of Itch Reduction and Patient-Reported Tolerability Supports Phase III Dose Selection for Linerixibat

Increase in serum bile acids (BAs) in patients with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) may play a causal role in cholestatic pruritus (itch). Linerixibat is a selective small molecule inhibitor of the ileal bile acid transporter, which blocks re-absorption of BAs in the gastrointestinal tract thereby lowering BAs in the systemic circulation and reducing itch. One consequence is excess BAs in the colon, leading to diarrhea and abdominal pain. GLIMMER (NCT02966834) was a placebo-controlled phase IIb dose-ranging trial of linerixibat once (q.d.) or twice daily (b.i.d.) in adults with moderate to severe pruritus and PBC. To determine the optimal dose for maximum itch reduction while minimizing diarrhea, a kinetic-pharmacodynamic (k-PD) model was developed using data from GLIMMER. The PD end point modeled was worst daily itch, derived from itch score reported by patients b.i.d. A proportional odds model was developed post hoc to indicate the probability of diarrhea occurrence, a patient-reported outcome (GI-5) recorded weekly. The final k-PD model successfully described the effects of linerixibat and placebo on itch. Model simulations were consistent with the observed dose-dependent increase in the average number of itch responders (patients with a ≥ 2-point improvement in itch). This was paralleled by a dose-dependent increase in the probability of higher diarrhea frequency scores. The b.i.d. dosing regimens led to a modest increase in the number of itch responders as compared with q.d. dosing. This quantitative framework highlights the trade-off between benefit and tolerability and supported the selection of 40 mg b.i.d. in the phase III GLISTEN trial (NCT04950127).

Primary Biliary Cholangitis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Presentation

Using ursodeoxycholic acid as a standard treatment and for its ability to test for antimitochondrial antibody to accelerate diagnosis, survival of primary biliary cholangitis patients has approached that of the general population, leading to a change in nomenclature from primary biliary cirrhosis to primary biliary cholangitis to more accurately describe the disease.

The impact of phototherapy on itch intensity and itch-related quality of life amongst different skin diseases, skin phototypes and genders - A prospective study with 102 patients

BACKGROUND

Phototherapy is a mainstay to treat itchy conditions. However, only little is known about differences in the antipruritic effect of phototherapy amongst different skin conditions, phototypes and genders.

METHODS

In this prospective, single-center study, we analyzed the effect of phototherapy on itch intensity and itch-related quality of life amongst these subgroups after a treatment duration of 4 weeks, while on-demand treatment with topical corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors and/or antihistamines was allowed.

RESULTS

Of 102 patients (age 53.0 ± 18.7, 56 females [54.9%]), 72 (78.3%) reported a significant reduction of itch intensity by Δ -2.76 on a 0-10 Numerical Rating Scale (NRS), p = <.001, 95% CI [2.2; 3.3] paralleled by a significant improvement of itch-related quality of life as measured by the German version of the ItchyQoL by Δ 7.3, p = <.001, 95% CI [4.4; 11.6]. The best improvement of itch intensity and itch-related QoL was reported by patients with pruritus on non-diseased skin (ΔNRS -3.5; Δ 9.7 Ger-ItchyQoL points), followed by patients with atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. We found no statistical differences in the response to phototherapy amongst Fitzpatrick phototypes I-VI. Women had higher itch intensities at baseline but itch-related quality of life impairment at baseline and phototherapy treatment response did not significantly differ between genders.

CONCLUSION

Phototherapy appears to induce a meaningful itch reduction in various itchy skin conditions, all phototypes and both genders within 4 weeks that directly translates into improvement of itch-related quality of life.

Single-cell analysis reveals melanocytes may promote inflammation in chronic wounds through cathepsin G

During acute wound (AW) healing, a series of proper communications will occur between different epidermal cells at precise temporal stages to restore the integrity of the skin. However, it is still unclear what variation happened in epidermal cell interaction in the chronic wound environment. To provide new insights into chronic wound healing, we reconstructed the variations in the epidermal cell-cell communication network that occur in chronic wound healing via single-cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) data analysis. We found that the intricate cellular and molecular interactions increased in pressure ulcer (PU) compared to AW, especially the PARs signaling pathways were significantly upregulated. It shows that the PARs signaling pathways' main source was melanocytes and the CTSG-F2RL1 ligand-receptor pairs were its main contributor. Cathepsin G (CatG or CTSG) is a serine protease mainly with trypsin- and chymotrypsin-like specificity. It is synthesized and secreted by some immune or non-immune cells. Whereas, it has not been reported that melanocytes can synthesize and secrete the CTSG. F2R Like Trypsin Receptor 1 (F2RL1) is a member of proteinase-activated receptors (PARs) that are irreversibly activated by proteolytic cleavage and its stimulation can promote inflammation and inflammatory cell infiltration. In this study, we found that melanocytes increased in pressure ulcers, melanocytes can synthesize and secrete the CTSG and may promote inflammation in chronic wounds through CTSG-F2RL1 pairs, which may be a novel potential target and a therapeutic strategy in the treatment of chronic wounds.

PPAR agonists for the treatment of primary biliary cholangitis: Old and new tales

INTRODUCTION

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is an autoimmune liver disease involving the small intrahepatic bile ducts; when untreated or undertreated, it may evolve to liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. Ursodeoxycholic Acid (UDCA) is the standard of care treatment, Obeticholic Acid (OCA) has been approved as second-line therapy for those non responder or intolerant to UDCA. However, due to moderate rate of UDCA-non responders and to warnings recently issued against OCA use in patients with cirrhosis, further therapies are needed.Areas covered. Deep investigations into the pathogenesis of PBC is leading to proposal of new therapeutic agents, among which peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) ligands seem to be highly promising given the preliminary, positive results in Phase 2 and 3 trials. Bezafibrate, the most evaluated, is currently used in clinical practice in combination with UDCA in referral centers. We herein describe completed and ongoing trials involving PPAR agonists use in PBC, analyzing pits and falls.

EXPERT OPINION

Testing new therapeutic opportunities in PBC is challenging due to its low prevalence and slow progression. However, new drugs including PPAR agonists, are currently under investigation and should be considered for at-risk PBC patients.

Evaluation and Management of Pruritus in Primary Biliary Cholangitis

Chronic pruritus is a classic symptom in patients with primary biliary cholangitis. It affects up to two-thirds of patients in the course of the disease. Efficient therapy consists of topical treatment combined with systemic options such as anion exchangers, rifampicin, bezafibrate, μ-opioid receptor antagonists, selective-serotonin receptor uptake inhibitors, and gabapentinoids. Future therapeutic approaches may contain the selective blockade of the enterohepatic cycle by inhibiting the ileal bile acid transporter, the agonism at κ-opioid receptors, and antagonism of the mas-related G protein-coupled receptor X4. As nondrug treatment, ultraviolet B therapy, albumin dialysis, and biliary drainage are available at specialized centers.

Serum Bile Acid Profiling and Mixed Model Analysis Reveal Biomarkers Associated with Pruritus Reduction in Maralixibat-Treated Patients with BSEP Deficiency

Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis (PFIC) is a debilitating disease manifest by severe cholestasis, intractable pruritus and growth delay that ultimately leads to liver failure or transplantation. Maralixibat (MRX) was recently approved for the treatment of cholestatic pruritus in patients with Alagille syndrome. The aim of this study was to determine whether specific changes in the composition of the serum bile acid metabolome could predict pruritus response to treatment. Serum BAs (sBA) and 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one (7α-C4), a surrogate marker of BA synthesis, were monitored by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry over 72 weeks in PFIC patients with mild to moderate non-truncating bile salt export pump (BSEP) mutations (n = 19) treated with MRX. The weekly itch reported outcome observer (ItchRO[Obs]) score measured pruritus severity. Linear mixed models (LMM) were applied to explore the effects of individual sBA profiles and their relationship to pruritus response. Changes in the composition of sBA correlated with pruritus improvement. Notably, the trajectory of serum total and individual BA species and 7α-C4 were significantly associated with ItchRO[Obs] score (p < 0.05). These results reveal that beyond simple total sBA concentrations, specific changes to the BA metabolome are associated with pruritus reduction in patients with BSEP deficiency, thus providing further insight into causal relationship of bile acids and pruritus.

Generalized resistance to pruritogen-induced scratching in the C3H/HeJ strain

Previously the effect of the pruritogens, such as histamine and chloroquine, was tested in 11 inbred mouse strains, and this study aimed to identify resistant and sensitive strains, consistent with the observation that underlies the large variability in human populations. In the present study, we used the low responder C3H/HeJ (C3H) and the more sensitive C57BL/6J (C57) strain to find out if resistance and sensitivity to develop pruritus is restricted to only histamine and chloroquine or extends to other known pruritogens as well. We tested five additional commonly known pruritogens. We established dose-response relationships by injecting four concentrations of the pruritogens in the range of 0.3, 1, 3, and ten-fold in the nuchal fold. Then we assessed the scratching behavior for 30 min after injection with an automated custom-designed device based on the bilateral implantation of mini-magnets in the hind paws and on single cages placed within a magnetic coil. We found that the resistance to pruritogens is a general phenotype of the C3H strain and extends to all pruritogens tested, including not only histamine and chloroquine, but also endothelin, trypsin, 5-HT (serotonin), the short peptide SLIGRL, and Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). C57 was more sensitive to all pruritogens and, in contrast to C3H, dose-response relationships were evident for some of the pruritogens. In general, comparable peak scratch responses were observed for the 0.3-fold concentrations of the pruritogens in C57 whereas C3H required at least the ten-fold concentration and still displayed only between 5 and 33% of the scratch responses observed in C57 for the respective pruritogen. The general resistance to pruritogens and the low level of scratching behavior found in the C3H strain is an interesting trait and represents a model for the study of the heritability of itch. It is accompanied in C3H with a higher sensitivity in assays of nociception.

Obeticholic Acid Impact on Quality of Life in Patients With Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis: REGENERATE 18-Month Interim Analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) affects patients' health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) evaluating HRQoL were assessed in the RandomizEd Global Phase 3 Study to Evaluate the Impact on NASH with FibRosis of Obeticholic Acid TreatmEnt (REGENERATE) study, which showed that obeticholic acid (OCA) significantly improved fibrosis in patients with NASH.

METHODS

Noncirrhotic NASH patients in a phase 3, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter, international study of OCA were enrolled. The Chronic Liver Disease Questionnaire-NASH and EuroQol EQ-5D-5L were administered at baseline, 6, 12, and 18 months.

RESULTS

There were 1218 patients (age, 54.1 ± 11.5 y; 57% women; 43% stage F3) in the expanded intent-to-treat population (stages, F1-F3) assigned randomly to 10 mg (N = 407) or 25 mg (N = 404) OCA or placebo (N = 407). Baseline measurements were balanced across treatment groups for EuroQol EQ-5D-5L and Chronic Liver Disease Questionnaire-NASH, including Itch score: 5.75 ± 1.53 (scale 1-7, with 7 representing no itching). Nineteen (1.6%) patients discontinued therapy (protocol mandated) because of grade 3 pruritus. Patients receiving 25 mg OCA experienced mild worsening of itch scores primarily in the first months of treatment: mean ± SE change from baseline -0.66 ± 0.12, -0.44 ± 0.12, and -0.42 ± 0.13 at 6, 12, and 18 months, respectively (all P < .01). No other PRO worsening was associated with 25 mg OCA. Patients experiencing fibrosis improvement, Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Activity Score decrease (by ≥2 points), or NASH resolution had greater PRO improvements in some domains.

CONCLUSIONS

NASH patients evaluated in REGENERATE had impaired quality of life and underlying pruritus at baseline. Improvement of NASH corresponded with improvement in several HRQoL domains. Generally mild pruritus occurs early after OCA therapy initiation and does not worsen over time.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov: NCT02548351.

Cholestatic Itch: Our Current Understanding of Pathophysiology and Treatments

Hepatic pruritus is common in liver conditions, including cholestasis and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The pruritus can be severe enough to diminish sleep and decrease quality of life. The pathophysiology likely involves many molecules and receptors, including bile acids, bilirubin, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), endogenous opioids, and serotonin. Recent advances suggest a significant role of Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor X4 (MRGPRX4) and autotaxin/LPA as key players in cholestatic pruritus. Further research is needed to develop increasingly targeted therapies with greater efficacy, especially given that many patients report itch refractory to various treatments. Cholestyramine was the only US FDA-approved drug for cholestatic pruritus until recent approval of ileal bile acid transporter (IBAT) inhibitors for use in the pediatric cholestatic conditions, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis and Alagille syndrome. Both medications decrease the bile acid pool. IBAT inhibitors are under investigation for broader use, and targeting LPA receptors and MRGPR4 are additional attractive options.

Symptom patterns in the daily life of PSC patients

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) may suffer from complaints such as pruritus, right upper abdominal quadrant pain (RUQ-A) and fatigue. However, the severity of these complaints, daily and/or seasonal patterns and other factors of influence in PSC are largely unknown. The aim of this study is to assess daily symptoms and patterns thereof in PSC patients in their natural setting.

METHODS

A mobile application was designed according to the experience sampling method. Push notifications with a response time of max 4 h were sent during tiers of 3 months. Questions comprised VAS scales on degree of pruritus, fatigue, RUQ-A, time of the day these symptoms were worst, as well as time of intake of medication. Linear mixed modelling was used to identify patient- and external factors associated with pruritus, fatigue and RUQ-A pain.

RESULTS

A total of 6713 questionnaires were completed by 137 patients. Fatigue was the most prevalent symptom among PSC patients being reported in a striking 71% of measurements, followed by pruritus (38%). Both increased during the day and were associated with longer disease duration. A highly significant correlation between pruritus and day temperature was observed (ρ = -0.14, p = .000), and itch was generally worse during winter (p = .000). Patient preference for the tool was high.

CONCLUSION

Pruritus and fatigue are prevalent symptoms in the daily life of PSC patients and show a distinct diurnal pattern. This may have implications for efficient dosing of anti-pruritic agents. The level of pruritus is highly correlated with day temperature, which may have several implications.

Therapeutic Opportunities of GPBAR1 in Cholestatic Diseases

GPBAR1, a transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor for bile acids, is widely expressed in multiple tissues in humans and rodents. In recent years, GPBAR1 has been thought to play an important role in bile homeostasis, metabolism and inflammation. This review specifically focuses on the function of GPBAR1 in cholestatic liver disease and summarizes the various pathways through which GPBAR1 acts in cholestatic models. GPBAR1 mainly regulates cholestasis in a holistic system of liver-gallbladder-gut formation. In the state of cholestasis, the activation of GPBAR1 could regulate liver inflammation, induce cholangiocyte regeneration to maintain the integrity of the biliary tree, control the hydrophobicity of the bile acid pool and promote the secretion of bile HCO₃⁻. All these functions of GPBAR1 might be clear ways to protect against cholestatic diseases and liver injury. However, the characteristic of GPBAR1-mediated proliferation increases the risk of proliferation of cholangiocarcinoma in malignant transformed cholangiocytes. This dichotomous function of GPBAR1 limits its use in cholestasis. During disease treatment, simultaneous activation of GPBAR1 and FXR receptors often results in improved outcomes, and this strategy may become a crucial direction in the development of bile acid-activated receptors in the future.

Evaluation of G-Protein-Coupled Bile Acid Receptor 1 (TGR5) Levels in Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy

Background and objective Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is the most common pregnancy-related liver disease. G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 (TGR5) agonists might be beneficial in ICP treatment. In this study, we aimed to investigate the relationship of serum TGR5 levels with ICP and associated itching. Methods Sixty-three pregnant women diagnosed with ICP based on a serum bile acid level of >10 µmol/L (patient group) and 47 healthy pregnant women as a control group were included in the study. In the patient group, ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) therapy was given at a dose of 15 mg/kg from the time of diagnosis until the termination of pregnancy. Serum transaminase levels were measured at the beginning and within 15 days after the onset of treatment, and the dose was increased in patients who were unresponsive to treatment. Results Bile acid level was found to be between 10-39 µmol/L in 61.9% of the ICP patients, and it was ≥40 µmol/L in 38.1% of the patients. The majority of the patients responded well to the treatment with UDCA. The mean TGR5 level was significantly higher in the patient group compared to the control group (0.98 ±0.95 ng/mL vs. 0.74 ±0.23 ng/mL, p=0.032). In the patient group, TGR5 level showed negative correlations with age and red cell distribution width and a positive correlation with lactate dehydrogenase level and lymphocyte count. Conclusions Based on our findings, it can be suggested that TGR5 may have a role in the pathogenesis but has no impact on the prognosis of the condition.

A deep dive into UV-based phototherapy: Mechanisms of action and emerging molecular targets in inflammation and cancer

UV-based phototherapy (including psoralen plus UVA (PUVA), UVB and UVA1) has a long, successful history in the management of numerous cutaneous disorders. Photoresponsive diseases are etiologically diverse, but most involve disturbances in local (and occasionally systemic) inflammatory cells and/or abnormalities in keratinocytes that trigger inflammation. UV-based phototherapy works by regulating the inflammatory component and inducing apoptosis of pathogenic cells. This results in a fascinating and complex network of simultaneous events-immediate transcriptional changes in keratinocytes, immune cells, and pigment cells; the emergence of apoptotic bodies; and the trafficking of antigen-presenting cells in skin-that quickly transform the microenvironment of UV-exposed skin. Molecular elements in this system of UV recognition and response include chromophores, metabolic byproducts, innate immune receptors, neurotransmitters and mediators such as chemokines and cytokines, antimicrobial peptides, and platelet activating factor (PAF) and PAF-like molecules that simultaneously shape the immunomodulatory effects of UV and their interplay with the microbiota of the skin and beyond. Phototherapy's key effects-proapoptotic, immunomodulatory, antipruritic, antifibrotic, propigmentary, and pro-prebiotic-promote clinical improvement in various skin diseases such as psoriasis, atopic dermatitis (AD), graft-versus-host disease (GvHD), vitiligo, scleroderma, and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) as well as prevention of polymorphic light eruption (PLE). As understanding of phototherapy improves, new therapies (UV- and non-UV-based) are being developed that will modify regulatory T-cells (Treg), interact with (resident) memory T-cells and /or utilize agonists and antagonists as well as antibodies targeting soluble molecules such as cytokines and chemokines, transcription factors, and a variety of membrane-associated receptors.

Role and significance of bile acid membrane receptor GPBAR1 in pathogenesis of obstructive jaundice

GPBAR1 is the first confirmed G protein coupled bile acid membrane receptor, which is widely expressed in the liver, gallbladder, kidney, intestine, and the nervous and cardiovascular systems. During the development of obstructive jaundice (OJ), GPBAR1 is activated by bile acid signal and mediates different signal transduction pathways, thus playing a corresponding role in the pathogenesis of OJ. GPBAR1 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of OJ by controlling inflammation, regulating the function of bile duct epithelial barrier, inhibiting renal oxidative stress, and regulating intestinal mucosal barrier and intestinal flora, pruritus and sensory disturbance, and cardiovascular function. This article reviews the role and signficance of GPBAR1 in the pathogenesis of OJ.

Recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of cholestatic pruritus: A review

Cholestasis, a condition characterized by an abnormal decrease in bile flow, is accompanied by various symptoms such as pruritus. Although cholestatic pruritus is a prominent condition, its precise mechanisms have largely been elusive. Recently, advancements have been made for understanding the etiology and pathogenesis of cholestatic pruritus. The current review therefore focuses on summarizing the overall progress made in the elucidation of its molecular mechanisms. We have reviewed the available animal models on cholestasis to compare the differences between them, characterized potential pruritogens involved in cholestatic pruritus, and have summarized the receptor and ion channels implicated in the condition. Finally, we have discussed the available treatment options for alleviation of cholestatic pruritus. As our understanding of the mechanisms of cholestatic pruritus deepens, novel strategies to cure this condition are awaited.

Cutaneous Manifestations of Chronic Liver Disease

Given the visibility of cutaneous findings, skin manifestations are often a presenting symptom of underlying systemic disease, including chronic liver disease. Many cutaneous signs and symptoms that correlate with chronic liver disease are common physical examination findings in patients with no history of liver disease. It is nonetheless important to be aware that these cutaneous findings may be an indication of underlying liver disease and often occur in the setting of such hepatic dysfunction. This article covers general cutaneous signs that may correlate with various liver diseases and describes specific cutaneous signs as they relate to more specific liver diseases.

The pharmacology of itch

The article has been co-published with permission in British Journal of Dermatology and British Journal of Pharmacology. The articles are identical except for minor stylistic and spelling differences in keeping with each journal's style. Either citation can be used when citing this article.