The role of visual and spatial working memory in forming mental models derived from survey and route descriptions

Investigating the different domains of environmental knowledge acquired from virtual navigation and their relationship to cognitive factors and wayfinding inclinations

When learning an environment from virtual navigation people gain knowledge about landmarks, their locations, and the paths that connect them. The present study newly aimed to investigate all these domains of knowledge and how cognitive factors such as visuospatial abilities and wayfinding inclinations might support virtual passive navigation. A total of 270 participants (145 women) were tested online. They: (i) completed visuospatial tasks and answered questionnaires on their wayfinding inclinations; and (ii) learnt a virtual path. The environmental knowledge they gained was assessed on their free recall of landmarks, their egocentric and allocentric pointing accuracy (location knowledge), and their performance in route direction and landmark location tasks (path knowledge). Visuospatial abilities and wayfinding inclinations emerged as two separate factors, and environmental knowledge as a single factor. The SEM model showed that both visuospatial abilities and wayfinding inclinations support the environmental knowledge factor, with similar pattern of relationships in men and women. Overall, factors related to the individual are relevant to the environmental knowledge gained from an online virtual passive navigation.

Is the construction of spatial models multimodal? New evidences towards sensory-motor information involvement from temporary blindness study

Using new developments of interference paradigm, this paper addresses the raising question of the involvement of sensory-motor information in the construction of elaborate spatial models (Johnson-Laird in Mental models: towards a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness Cambridge University Press Cambridge, 1983). In two experiments, 112 participants had to explore and memorize the spatial arrangement of 12 objects, disposed on 3 tables. Participants were either sighted or blindfolded, leading to a visual or a more sensory-motor based exploration of the room. During exploration, participants were required to perform a classical verbal, a visuo-spatial dual task or none. In the second experiment, more exploratory, we draw on interference paradigm literature and its recent development in the embodied field to develop two original dual tasks meant to interfere directly with the acquisition of sensory-motor information (haptic and action). After this learning phase, five tasks addressing spatial memory and reasoning used in the construction of spatial models were performed. Results showed classical effects for both verbal and visuo-spatial tasks for sighted participants, but not for blindfolded sighted ones, suggesting that a temporary visual deprivation led participants to use other way to build their spatial models. Our second experiment confirmed this point by showing effect of both sensory-motor dual tasks, especially for blindfolded sighted participants. Taking together, our results support a multimodal view of spatial models, and that exploration modality will influence the information used to construct them. Moreover, this challenges the Baddeley's dualist view of working memory as a reference to theorize the construction of spatial models and provide new experimental evidences towards an embodied view of spatial models.

Difficulties and Problem-Solving Strategies in Wayfinding Among Adults With Cognitive Disabilities: A Look at the Bigger Picture

Many people with cognitive disabilities avoid outside activities, apparently for fear of getting lost. However, little is known about the nature of the difficulties encountered and the ways in which these individuals deal with them. None of the few studies on wayfinding by people with cognitive disabilities have explored the various specific difficulties they meet in everyday life. Using both a qualitative and quantitative methodology, this study aimed at profiling the types of difficulties encountered in urban mobility and the associated problem-solving strategies. In order to provide more direct evidence from the field, we conducted semi-structured interviews using the critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954). Among the 66 participants interviewed, 44 had cognitive disabilities and 22 were matched controls. The analysis of the transcripts showed in particular an overall reduced autonomy in problem-solving strategies for people with a cognitive disability. The multiple correspondence analysis highlighted three main types of complex situations, covering a comprehensive range of complex situations that are met in everyday life by these individuals. Results also indicated that people with cognitive disabilities request assistance from another person more frequently when a complex event occurs. These situations are discussed as potential cues for improvements in navigational aids. Conclusions and perspectives are provided to improve wayfinding among people with cognitive disabilities.

Spatial text processing: are estimates of time and distance influenced by the age of characters and readers?

It is widely accepted that, while hearing or reading a story, people continuously form and update mental representations of the characters, places and events being described, based on plausible spatial, temporal or intentional details. According to the embodied cognition approach, the mental representations that accompany text reading are grounded in each reader's own sensorimotor experiences. Two experiments were conducted to examine whether readers' estimates of time and distance are influenced by age, their own and that of the character being described. In Experiment 1, 182 young adults read the description of a route in a town being covered by a young or an elderly character. In Experiment 2, the same descriptions as in Experiment 1 were read by 121 young adults and 53 older people. To avoid a possible confound, a follow-up to Experiment 1 (Experiment 1a) repeated the study by removing from texts the adverbs describing the walking speed of characters. In all experiments, participants were asked to estimate: (a) the time the characters took to reach their destinations (time estimation task); and (b) the distance they covered (distance estimation task). The results showed that both characters' and readers' ages influenced the time estimated, whereas no effects were found on estimates of distance: the elderly character was estimated to take longer than the young character (Experiments 1, 1a and 2), and older readers estimated longer times than younger readers (Experiment 2). This prompts the conclusion that personal features of both the readers and the characters they read about were used to infer the temporal dimension of situations described in the narratives. The theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

How sense-of-direction and learning intentionality relate to spatial knowledge acquisition in the environment

People’s impression of their own “sense-of-direction” (SOD) is related to their ability to effectively find their way through environments, such as neighborhoods and cities, but is also related to the speed and accuracy with which they learn new environments. In the current literature, it is unclear whether the cognitive skills underlying SOD require intentional cognitive effort to produce accurate knowledge of a new environment. The cognitive skills underlying SOD could exert their influence automatically—without conscious intention—or they might need to be intentionally and effortfully applied. Determining the intentionality of acquiring environmental spatial knowledge would shed light on whether individuals with a poor SOD can be trained to use the skill set of an individual with good SOD, thereby improving their wayfinding and spatial learning. Therefore, this research investigates the accuracy of spatial knowledge acquisition during a walk through a previously unfamiliar neighborhood by individuals with differing levels of self-assessed SOD, as a function of whether their spatial learning was intentional or incidental. After walking a route through the neighborhood, participants completed landmark, route, and survey knowledge tasks. SOD was related to the accuracy of acquired spatial knowledge, as has been found previously. However, learning intentionality did not affect spatial knowledge acquisition, neither as a main effect nor in interaction with SOD. This research reveals that while the accuracy of spatial knowledge acquired via direct travel through an environment is validly measured by self-reported SOD, the spatial skills behind a good SOD appear to operate with or without intentional application.