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Chaumond E, Peron S, Daniel N, Le Gouar Y, Guédon É, Williams DL, Le Loir Y, Jan G, Berkova N. Development of innate immune memory by non-immune cells during Staphylococcus aureus infection depends on reactive oxygen species. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1138539. [PMID: 37325649 PMCID: PMC10264681 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1138539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The mechanisms underlying innate immune memory (trained immunity) comprise epigenetic reprogramming of transcriptional pathways associated with alterations of intracellular metabolism. While the mechanisms of innate immune memory carried out by immune cells are well characterized, such processes in non-immune cells, are poorly understood. The opportunistic pathogen, Staphylococcus aureus, is responsible for a multitude of human diseases, including pneumonia, endocarditis and osteomyelitis, as well as animal infections, including chronic cattle mastitis that are extremely difficult to treat. An induction of innate immune memory may be considered as a therapeutic alternative to fight S. aureus infection. Methods In the current work, we demonstrated the development of innate immune memory in non-immune cells during S. aureus infection employing a combination of techniques including Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), microscopic analysis, and cytometry. Results We observed that training of human osteoblast-like MG-63 cells and lung epithelial A549 cells with β-glucan increased IL-6 and IL-8 production upon a stimulation with S. aureus, concomitant with histones modifications. IL-6 and IL-8 production was positively correlated with an acetylation of histone 3 at lysine 27 (H3K27), thus suggesting epigenetic reprogramming in these cells. An addition of the ROS scavenger N-Acetylcysteine, NAC, prior to β-glucan pretreatment followed by an exposure to S. aureus, resulted in decreased IL-6 and IL-8 production, thereby supporting the involvement of ROS in the induction of innate immune memory. Exposure of cells to Lactococcus lactis resulted in increased IL-6 and IL-8 production by MG-63 and A549 cells upon a stimulation with S. aureus that was correlated with H3K27 acetylation, suggesting the ability of this beneficial bacterium to induce innate immune memory. Discussion This work improves our understanding of innate immune memory in non-immune cells in the context of S. aureus infection. In addition to known inducers, probiotics may represent good candidates for the induction of innate immune memory. Our findings may help the development of alternative therapeutic approaches for the prevention of S. aureus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Chaumond
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Sandrine Peron
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Nathalie Daniel
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Yann Le Gouar
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Éric Guédon
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - David L. Williams
- Department of Surgery and Center of Excellence in Inflammation, Infectious Disease and Immunity, Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson, TN, United States
| | - Yves Le Loir
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Gwénaël Jan
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Nadia Berkova
- l'Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l'Oeuf (STLO), Rennes, France
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Zhou F, Zhang G, Wu Y, Xiong Y. Inflammasome Complexes: Crucial mediators in osteoimmunology and bone diseases. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 110:109072. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Nicolas A, Deplanche M, Commere PH, Diot A, Genthon C, Marques da Silva W, Azevedo V, Germon P, Jamme H, Guédon E, Le Loir Y, Laurent F, Bierne H, Berkova N. Transcriptome Architecture of Osteoblastic Cells Infected With Staphylococcus aureus Reveals Strong Inflammatory Responses and Signatures of Metabolic and Epigenetic Dysregulation. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:854242. [PMID: 35531332 PMCID: PMC9067450 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.854242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen that causes a range of devastating diseases including chronic osteomyelitis, which partially relies on the internalization and persistence of S. aureus in osteoblasts. The identification of the mechanisms of the osteoblast response to intracellular S. aureus is thus crucial to improve the knowledge of this infectious pathology. Since the signal from specifically infected bacteria-bearing cells is diluted and the results are confounded by bystander effects of uninfected cells, we developed a novel model of long-term infection. Using a flow cytometric approach we isolated only S. aureus-bearing cells from mixed populations that allows to identify signals specific to intracellular infection. Here we present an in-depth analysis of the effect of long-term S. aureus infection on the transcriptional program of human osteoblast-like cells. After RNA-seq and KEGG and Reactome pathway enrichment analysis, the remodeled transcriptomic profile of infected cells revealed exacerbated immune and inflammatory responses, as well as metabolic dysregulations that likely influence the intracellular life of bacteria. Numerous genes encoding epigenetic regulators were downregulated. The later included genes coding for components of chromatin-repressive complexes (e.g., NuRD, BAHD1 and PRC1) and epifactors involved in DNA methylation. Sets of genes encoding proteins of cell adhesion or neurotransmission were also deregulated. Our results suggest that intracellular S. aureus infection has a long-term impact on the genome and epigenome of host cells, which may exert patho-physiological dysfunctions additionally to the defense response during the infection process. Overall, these results not only improve our conceptual understanding of biological processes involved in the long-term S. aureus infections of osteoblast-like cells, but also provide an atlas of deregulated host genes and biological pathways and identify novel markers and potential candidates for prophylactic and therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Nicolas
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l’OEuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Martine Deplanche
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l’OEuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Pierre-Henri Commere
- Cytometry and Biomarkers Centre de Ressources et Recherches Technologiques (C2RT), Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Alan Diot
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm U1111, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Unité Mixte de Recherche 5308 (UMR5308), Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS) de Lyon, Universit´ Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, French National Reference Centre for Staphylococci, Lyon, France
| | - Clemence Genthon
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Unité Service 1426 (US1426), Transcriptome Plateforme Technologique (GeT-PlaGe), Genotoul, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Wanderson Marques da Silva
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l’OEuf (STLO), Rennes, France
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Vasco Azevedo
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Pierre Germon
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Université François Rabelais, Infectiologie et Santé Publique (ISP), Tours, France
| | - Hélène Jamme
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (UVSQ), Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Biologie de la Reproduction, Environnement, Epigénétique et Développement (BREED), Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, Biologie de la Reproduction, Environnement, Epigénétique et Développement (BREED), Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Eric Guédon
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l’OEuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Yves Le Loir
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l’OEuf (STLO), Rennes, France
| | - Fréderic Laurent
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, CIRI, Inserm U1111, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Unité Mixte de Recherche 5308 (UMR5308), Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS) de Lyon, Universit´ Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL1), Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, French National Reference Centre for Staphylococci, Lyon, France
| | - Hélène Bierne
- Université Paris-Saclay, Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Nadia Berkova
- Institut National de Recherche pour l’agriculture, l’alimentation et l’environnement (INRAE), Institut Agro, Science et Technologie du Lait et de l’OEuf (STLO), Rennes, France
- *Correspondence: Nadia Berkova,
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Tian D, Xing Y, Gao W, Zhang H, Song Y, Tian Y, Dai Z. Sevoflurane Aggravates the Progress of Alzheimer’s Disease Through NLRP3/Caspase-1/Gasdermin D Pathway. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 9:801422. [PMID: 35127716 PMCID: PMC8807556 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.801422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia worldwide. Previous studies have reported that sevoflurane, a frequently used anesthetic, can induce cognitive impairment in preclinical and clinical settings. However, the mechanism underlying the development of this neurotoxicity is currently unclear. Methods: Seven-month-old APP/PS1 mice were placed in an anesthesia induction box containing 3% sevoflurane in 100% O2 for 6 h, while BV2 cells were cultured with 4% sevoflurane for 6 h. Pyroptosis and tau protein expression in excised hippocampus tissues and cells were measured using Western blotting and immunofluorescence assay. Caspase-1 and NLRP3 were knocked out in BV2 microglia using CRISPR/Cas9 technology to determine whether they mediate the effects induced by sevoflurane. Results: Sevoflurane directly activated caspase-1 to induce pyroptosis in the mouse model of AD via NLRP3 and AIM2 activation. In addition, sevoflurane mediated cleavage of gasdermin D (GSDMD) but not gasdermin E (GSDME), promoted the biosynthesis of downstream interleukin-1β and interleukin-18, and increased β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition and tau phosphorylation. The nontoxic caspase-1 small-molecule inhibitor VX-765 significantly inhibited this activation process in microglia, while NLRP3 deletion suppressed sevoflurane-induced caspase-1 cleavage and subsequently pyroptosis, as well as tau pathology. Furthermore, silencing caspase-1 alleviated the sevoflurane-induced release of IL-1β and IL-18 and inhibited tau-related enzymes in microglia. Conclusion: This study is the first to report that clinical doses of sevoflurane aggravate the progression of AD via the NLRP3/caspase-1/GSDMD axis. Collectively, our findings elucidate the crucial mechanisms of NLRP3/caspase-1 in pyroptosis and tau pathogenesis induced by sevoflurane and suggest that VX-765 could represent a novel therapeutic intervention for treating AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Tian
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Center of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yanmei Xing
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Center of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wenli Gao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Center of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hongyan Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Center of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yifeng Song
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Center of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ya Tian
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Center of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhongliang Dai
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University), Shenzhen, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Engineering Research Center of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen, China
- *Correspondence: Zhongliang Dai,
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Ni F, Zhang T, Xiao W, Dong H, Gao J, Liu Y, Li J. IL-18-Mediated SLC7A5 Overexpression Enhances Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells via the c-MYC Pathway. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:748831. [PMID: 34977008 PMCID: PMC8718798 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.748831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To investigate the role of IL-18 in the regulation of osteogenic differentiation in human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs). Methods: To assess whether IL-18 affects the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs through the c-MYC/SLC7A5 axis, IL-18 dose-response and time-course experiments were performed to evaluate its impact on osteogenic differentiation. To confirm osteogenic differentiation, alizarin red staining calcium measurement were performed. RT-qPCR and western blotting were used to determine the expression levels of bone-specific markers ALP, RUNX2, and BMP2, as well as those of SLC7A5 and c-MYC. Furthermore, SLC7A5 and c-MYC expression was evaluated via immunofluorescence. To elucidate the roles of SLC7A5 and c-MYC in osteoblast differentiation, cells were transfected with SLC7A5 or c-MYC siRNAs, or treated with the SLC7A5-specific inhibitor JPH203 and c-MYC-specific inhibitor 10058-F4, and the expression of SLC7A5, c-MYC, and bone-specific markers ALP, RUNX2, and BMP2 was assessed. Results: Our results demonstrated that IL-18 increased calcium deposition in hBMSCs, and upregulated the expression of SLC7A5, c-MYC, ALP, RUNX2, and BMP2. Silencing of SLC7A5 or c-MYC using siRNA reduced the expression of ALP, RUNX2, and BMP2, while IL-18 treatment partially reversed the inhibitory effect of siRNA. Similar results were obtained by treating hBMSCs with SLC7A5 and c-MYC specific inhibitors, leading to significant reduction of the osteogenesis effect of IL-18 on hBMSCs. Conclusion: In conclusion, our results indicate that IL-18 promotes the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs via the SLC7A5/c-MYC pathway and, therefore, may play an important role in fracture healing. These findings will provide new treatment strategies for delayed fracture healing after splenectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Ni
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Wanan Xiao
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Hong Dong
- Liaoning Qifu Stem Cell Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Shenyang, China
| | - Jian Gao
- Liaoning Qifu Stem Cell Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Shenyang, China
| | - YaFeng Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jianjun Li
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- *Correspondence: Jianjun Li,
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Abstract
Bone remodeling is tightly controlled by osteoclast-mediated bone resorption and osteoblast-mediated bone formation. Fine tuning of the osteoclast-osteoblast balance results in strict synchronization of bone resorption and formation, which maintains structural integrity and bone tissue homeostasis; in contrast, dysregulated bone remodeling may cause pathological osteolysis, in which inflammation plays a vital role in promoting bone destruction. The alveolar bone presents high turnover rate, complex associations with the tooth and periodontium, and susceptibility to oral pathogenic insults and mechanical stress, which enhance its complexity in host defense and bone remodeling. Alveolar bone loss is also involved in systemic bone destruction and is affected by medication or systemic pathological factors. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the osteoimmunological mechanisms involved in the dysregulation of alveolar bone remodeling. The inflammasome is a supramolecular protein complex assembled in response to pattern recognition receptors and damage-associated molecular patterns, leading to the maturation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and activation of inflammatory responses. Pyroptosis downstream of inflammasome activation also facilitates the clearance of intracellular pathogens and irritants. However, inadequate or excessive activity of the inflammasome may allow for persistent infection and infection spreading or uncontrolled destruction of the alveolar bone, as commonly observed in periodontitis, periapical periodontitis, peri-implantitis, orthodontic tooth movement, medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw, nonsterile or sterile osteomyelitis of the jaw, and osteoporosis. In this review, we present a framework for understanding the role and mechanism of canonical and noncanonical inflammasomes in the pathogenesis and development of etiologically diverse diseases associated with alveolar bone loss. Inappropriate inflammasome activation may drive alveolar osteolysis by regulating cellular players, including osteoclasts, osteoblasts, osteocytes, periodontal ligament cells, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and adaptive immune cells, such as T helper 17 cells, causing increased osteoclast activity, decreased osteoblast activity, and enhanced periodontium inflammation by creating a pro-inflammatory milieu in a context- and cell type-dependent manner. We also discuss promising therapeutic strategies targeting inappropriate inflammasome activity in the treatment of alveolar bone loss. Novel strategies for inhibiting inflammasome signaling may facilitate the development of versatile drugs that carefully balance the beneficial contributions of inflammasomes to host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- Department of Endodontics, Affiliated Stomatology Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Research of Oral Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junqi Ling
- Department of Endodontics, Affiliated Stomatology Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Research of Oral Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Department of Operative Dentistry and Endodontics, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qianzhou Jiang
- Department of Endodontics, Affiliated Stomatology Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Research of Oral Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou, China
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Stracquadanio S, Musso N, Costantino A, Lazzaro LM, Stefani S, Bongiorno D. Staphylococcus aureus Internalization in Osteoblast Cells: Mechanisms, Interactions and Biochemical Processes. What Did We Learn from Experimental Models? Pathogens 2021; 10:239. [PMID: 33669789 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial internalization is a strategy that non-intracellular microorganisms use to escape the host immune system and survive inside the human body. Among bacterial species, Staphylococcus aureus showed the ability to interact with and infect osteoblasts, causing osteomyelitis as well as bone and joint infection, while also becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotic therapy and a reservoir of bacteria that can make the infection difficult to cure. Despite being a serious issue in orthopedic surgery, little is known about the mechanisms that allow bacteria to enter and survive inside the osteoblasts, due to the lack of consistent experimental models. In this review, we describe the current knowledge about S. aureus internalization mechanisms and various aspects of the interaction between bacteria and osteoblasts (e.g., best experimental conditions, bacteria-induced damages and immune system response), focusing on studies performed using the MG-63 osteoblastic cell line, the best traditional (2D) model for the study of this phenomenon to date. At the same time, as it has been widely demonstrated that 2D culture systems are not completely indicative of the dynamic environment in vivo, and more recent 3D models—representative of bone infection—have also been investigated.
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Prince A, Wong Fok Lung T. Consequences of Metabolic Interactions during Staphylococcus aureus Infection. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E581. [PMID: 32917040 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a metabolically flexible pathogen that causes infection in diverse settings. An array of virulence factors, including the secreted toxins, enables S. aureus to colonize different environmental niches and initiate infections by any of several discrete pathways. During these infections, both S. aureus and host cells compete with each other for nutrients and remodel their metabolism for survival. This metabolic interaction/crosstalk determines the outcome of the infection. The reprogramming of metabolic pathways in host immune cells not only generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to meet the cellular energy requirements during the infection process but also activates antimicrobial responses for eventual bacterial clearance, including cell death pathways. The selective pressure exerted by host immune cells leads to the emergence of bacterial mutants adapted for chronicity. These host-adapted mutants are often characterized by substantial changes in the expression of their own metabolic genes, or by mutations in genes involved in metabolism and biofilm formation. Host-adapted S. aureus can rewire or benefit from the metabolic activities of the immune cells via several mechanisms to cause persistent infection. In this review, we discuss how S. aureus activates host innate immune signaling, which results in an immune metabolic pressure that shapes S. aureus metabolic adaptation and determines the outcome of the infection.
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