1
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Narita T, Tobisawa Y, Bobkov A, Jackson M, Ohyama C, Irie F, Yamaguchi Y. TMEM2 is a bona fide hyaluronidase possessing intrinsic catalytic activity. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105120. [PMID: 37527776 PMCID: PMC10474455 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmembrane protein 2 (TMEM2) was originally identified as a membrane-anchored protein of unknown function. We previously demonstrated that TMEM2 can degrade hyaluronan (HA). Furthermore, we showed that induced global knockout of Tmem2 in adult mice results in rapid accumulation of incompletely degraded HA in bodily fluids and organs, supporting the identity of TMEM2 as a cell surface hyaluronidase. In spite of these advances, no direct evidence has been presented to demonstrate the intrinsic hyaluronidase activity of TMEM2. Here, we directly establish the catalytic activity of TMEM2. The ectodomain of TMEM2 (TMEM2ECD) was expressed as a His-tagged soluble protein and purified by affinity and size-exclusion chromatography. Both human and mouse TMEM2ECD robustly degrade fluorescein-labeled HA into 5 to 10 kDa fragments. TMEM2ECD exhibits this HA-degrading activity irrespective of the species of TMEM2 origin and the position of epitope tag insertion. The HA-degrading activity of TMEM2ECD is more potent than that of HYAL2, a hyaluronidase which, like TMEM2, has been implicated in cell surface HA degradation. Finally, we show that TMEM2ECD can degrade not only fluorescein-labeled HA but also native high-molecular weight HA. In addition to these core findings, our study reveals hitherto unrecognized confounding factors, such as the quality of reagents and the choice of assay systems, that could lead to erroneous conclusions regarding the catalytic activity of TMEM2. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that TMEM2 is a legitimate functional hyaluronidase. Our findings also raise cautions regarding the choice of reagents and methods for performing degradation assays for hyaluronidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuma Narita
- Human Genetics Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Yuki Tobisawa
- Human Genetics Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA; Department of Urology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Andrey Bobkov
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Michael Jackson
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Chikara Ohyama
- Department of Urology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Fumitoshi Irie
- Human Genetics Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Yu Yamaguchi
- Human Genetics Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
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2
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Icso JD, Barasa L, Thompson PR. SARM1, an Enzyme Involved in Axon Degeneration, Catalyzes Multiple Activities through a Ternary Complex Mechanism. Biochemistry 2023; 62:2065-2078. [PMID: 37307562 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.3c00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sterile alpha and toll/interleukin receptor (TIR) motif containing protein 1 (SARM1) is an NAD+ hydrolase and cyclase involved in axonal degeneration. In addition to NAD+ hydrolysis and cyclization, SARM1 catalyzes a base exchange reaction between nicotinic acid (NA) and NADP+ to generate NAADP, which is a potent calcium signaling molecule. Herein, we describe efforts to characterize the hydrolysis, cyclization, and base exchange activities of TIR-1, the Caenorhabditis elegans ortholog of SARM1; TIR-1 also catalyzes NAD(P)+ hydrolysis and/or cyclization and regulates axonal degeneration in worms. We show that the catalytic domain of TIR-1 undergoes a liquid-to-solid phase transition that regulates not only the hydrolysis and cyclization reactions but also the base exchange reaction. We define the substrate specificities of the reactions, demonstrate that cyclization and base exchange reactions occur within the same pH range, and establish that TIR-1 uses a ternary complex mechanism. Overall, our findings will aid drug discovery efforts and provide insight into the mechanism of recently described inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janneke D Icso
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medial School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
| | - Leonard Barasa
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medial School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
| | - Paul R Thompson
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medial School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
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3
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A conformation-specific nanobody targeting the nicotinamide mononucleotide-activated state of SARM1. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7898. [PMID: 36550129 PMCID: PMC9780360 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35581-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterile alpha (SAM) and Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) motif containing 1 (SARM1) is an autoinhibitory NAD-consuming enzyme that is activated by the accumulation of nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) during axonal injury. Its activation mechanism is not fully understood. Here, we generate a nanobody, Nb-C6, that specifically recognizes NMN-activated SARM1. Nb-C6 stains only the activated SARM1 in cells stimulated with CZ-48, a permeant mimetic of NMN, and partially activates SARM1 in vitro and in cells. Cryo-EM of NMN/SARM1/Nb-C6 complex shows an octameric structure with ARM domains bending significantly inward and swinging out together with TIR domains. Nb-C6 binds to SAM domain of the activated SARM1 and stabilized its ARM domain. Mass spectrometry analyses indicate that the activated SARM1 in solution is highly dynamic and that the neighboring TIRs form transient dimers via the surface close to one BB loop. We show that Nb-C6 is a valuable tool for studies of SARM1 activation.
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4
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Certo M, Llibre A, Lee W, Mauro C. Understanding lactate sensing and signalling. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2022; 33:722-735. [PMID: 35999109 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2022.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Metabolites generated from cellular and tissue metabolism have been rediscovered in recent years as signalling molecules. They may act as cofactor of enzymes or be linked to proteins as post-translational modifiers. They also act as ligands for specific receptors, highlighting that their neglected functions have, in fact, a long standing in evolution. Lactate is one such metabolite that has been considered for long time a waste product of metabolism devoid of any biological function. However, in the past 10 years, lactate has gained much attention in several physio-pathological processes. Mechanisms of sensing and signalling have been discovered and implicated in a broad range of diseases, from cancer to inflammation and fibrosis, providing opportunities for novel therapeutic avenues. Here, we review some of the most recently discovered mechanisms of lactate sensing and signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelangelo Certo
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Alba Llibre
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Claudio Mauro
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
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5
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Icso JD, Thompson PR. The chemical biology of NAD + regulation in axon degeneration. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2022; 69:102176. [PMID: 35780654 PMCID: PMC10084848 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2022.102176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
During axon degeneration, NAD+ levels are largely controlled by two enzymes: nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase 2 (NMNAT2) and sterile alpha and toll interleukin motif containing protein 1 (SARM1). NMNAT2, which catalyzes the formation of NAD+ from NMN and ATP, is actively degraded leading to decreased NAD+ levels. SARM1 activity further decreases the concentration of NAD+ by catalyzing its hydrolysis to form nicotinamide and a mixture of ADPR and cADPR. Notably, SARM1 knockout mice show decreased neurodegeneration in animal models of axon degeneration, highlighting the therapeutic potential of targeting this novel NAD+ hydrolase. This review discusses recent advances in the SARM1 field, including SARM1 structure, regulation, and catalysis as well as the identification of the first SARM1 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janneke D Icso
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Paul R Thompson
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
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6
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Schmitz M, Schultze A, Vanags R, Voigt K, Di Ventura B, Öztürk MA. patcHwork: a user-friendly pH sensitivity analysis web server for protein sequences and structures. Nucleic Acids Res 2022; 50:W560-W567. [PMID: 35438792 PMCID: PMC9252814 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkac252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
pH regulates protein function and interactions by altering the charge of individual residues causing loss or gain of intramolecular noncovalent bonds, which may lead to structural rearrangements. While tools to analyze residue-specific charge distribution of proteins at a given pH exist, currently no tool is available to investigate noncovalent bond changes at two different pH values. To make protein pH sensitivity analysis more accessible, we developed patcHwork, a web server that combines the identification of amino acids undergoing a charge shift with the determination of affected noncovalent bonds at two user-defined pH values. At the sequence-only level, patcHwork applies the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation to determine pH-sensitive residues. When the 3D protein structure is available, patcHwork can be employed to gain mechanistic understanding of the effect of pH. This is achieved using the PDB2PQR and PROPKA tools and noncovalent bond determination algorithms. A user-friendly interface allows visualizing pH-sensitive residues, affected salt bridges, hydrogen bonds and aromatic (pi–pi and cation–pi) interactions. patcHwork can be used to identify patches, a new concept we propose of pH-sensitive residues in close proximity on the protein, which may have a major impact on function. We demonstrate the attractiveness of patcHwork studying experimentally investigated pH-sensitive proteins (https://patchwork.biologie.uni-freiburg.de/).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Schmitz
- Signaling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 18, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Institute of Biology II, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anne Schultze
- Signaling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 18, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Institute of Biology II, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Raimonds Vanags
- Institute of Biology III, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Karsten Voigt
- Institute of Biology III, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Barbara Di Ventura
- Signaling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 18, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Institute of Biology II, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Mehmet Ali Öztürk
- Signaling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 18, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Institute of Biology II, University of Freiburg, Schänzlestr. 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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7
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Lu Q, Botchway BOA, Zhang Y, Jin T, Liu X. SARM1 can be a potential therapeutic target for spinal cord injury. Cell Mol Life Sci 2022; 79:161. [PMID: 35224705 PMCID: PMC11072485 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04195-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Injury to the spinal cord is devastating. Studies have implicated Wallerian degeneration as the main cause of axonal destruction in the wake of spinal cord injury. Therefore, the suppression of Wallerian degeneration could be beneficial for spinal cord injury treatment. Sterile alpha and armadillo motif-containing protein 1 (SARM1) is a key modulator of Wallerian degeneration, and its impediment can improve spinal cord injury to a significant degree. In this report, we analyze the various signaling domains of SARM1, the recent findings on Wallerian degeneration and its relation to axonal insults, as well as its connection to SARM1, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, and the survival factor, nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase 2 (NMNAT2). We then elaborate on the possible role of SARM1 in spinal cord injury and explicate how its obstruction could potentially alleviate the injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qicheng Lu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical College, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, China
| | - Benson O A Botchway
- Institute of Neuroscience, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical College, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, China
| | - Tian Jin
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical College, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, China
| | - Xuehong Liu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical College, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, China.
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8
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Gorbunova V, Buschbeck M, Cambronne XA, Chellappa K, Corda D, Du J, Freichel M, Gigas J, Green AE, Gu F, Guberovic I, Jayabalan A, Khansahib I, Mukherjee S, Seluanov A, Simon MA, Sverkeli LJ, Kory N, Levine DC, Matic I, Nikiforov A, Rack JG, Imai SI, Sinclair DA, Toiber D, Zhao Y, Mostoslavsky R, Kraus L, Guse AH. The 2021 FASEB science research conference on NAD metabolism and signaling. Aging (Albany NY) 2021. [PMCID: PMC8714140 DOI: 10.18632/aging.203766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vera Gorbunova
- Departments of Biology and Medicine, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Marcus Buschbeck
- Cancer and Leukaemia Epigenetics and Biology Program, Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Campus ICO-GTP-UAB, Badalona, Catalonia 08916, Spain
- Program for Predictive and Personalized Medicine of Cancer, Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (PMPPC-IGTP), Badalona, Catalonia 08916, Spain
| | - Xiaolu A. Cambronne
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78705, USA
| | - Karthikeyani Chellappa
- Department of Physiology and Institute for Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
| | - Daniela Corda
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, National Research Council, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Juan Du
- Department of Structural Biology, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Marc Freichel
- Institute of Pharmacology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg 69117, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gigas
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Alexander E. Green
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Éric Poulin Centre for Neuromuscular Disease, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Feng Gu
- The Calcium Signalling Group, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 20246, Germany
| | - Iva Guberovic
- Cancer and Leukaemia Epigenetics and Biology Program, Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute (IJC), Campus ICO-GTP-UAB, Badalona, Catalonia 08916, Spain
| | - Aravinthkumar Jayabalan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Imrankhan Khansahib
- The Calcium Signalling Group, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 20246, Germany
| | - Sarmistha Mukherjee
- Department of Physiology and Institute for Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
| | - Andrei Seluanov
- Departments of Biology and Medicine, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Matthew A. Simon
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Lars J. Sverkeli
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Vestland 5007, Norway
| | - Nora Kory
- Department of Molecular Metabolism, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Daniel C. Levine
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Ivan Matic
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Nordrhein-Westfalen 50931, Germany
| | - Andrey Nikiforov
- Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 199178, Russia
| | - Johannes G.M. Rack
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Shin-Ichiro Imai
- Department of Developmental Biology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Gerontology, Laboratory of Molecular Life Science, Institute of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan
| | - David A. Sinclair
- Genetics Department, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Debra Toiber
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, 84105, Israel
| | - Yongjuan Zhao
- Ciechanover Institute of Precision and Regenerative Medicine, School of Life and Health Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518172, China
| | - Raul Mostoslavsky
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- The Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02114, USA
| | - Lee Kraus
- Laboratory of Signaling and Gene Regulation, Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biology Sciences, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
- Division of Basic Research, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Andreas H. Guse
- The Calcium Signalling Group, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 20246, Germany
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9
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Doran CG, Sugisawa R, Carty M, Roche F, Fergus C, Hokamp K, Kelly VP, Bowie AG. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated SARM1 knockout and epitope-tagged mice reveal that SARM1 does not regulate nuclear transcription, but is expressed in macrophages. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101417. [PMID: 34793837 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
SARM1 is a toll/interleukin-1 receptor -domain containing protein, with roles proposed in both innate immunity and neuronal degeneration. Murine SARM1 has been reported to regulate the transcription of chemokines in both neurons and macrophages; however, the extent to which SARM1 contributes to transcription regulation remains to be fully understood. Here, we identify differential gene expression in bone-marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from C57BL/6 congenic 129 ES cell-derived Sarm1-/- mice compared with wild type (WT). However, we found that passenger genes, which are derived from the 129 donor strain of mice that flank the Sarm1 locus, confound interpretation of the results, since many of the identified differentially regulated genes come from this region. To re-examine the transcriptional role of SARM1 in the absence of passenger genes, here we generated three Sarm1-/- mice using CRISPR/Cas9. Treatment of neurons from these mice with vincristine, a chemotherapeutic drug causing axonal degeneration, confirmed SARM1's function in that process; however, these mice also showed that lack of SARM1 has no impact on transcription of genes previously shown to be affected such as chemokines. To gain further insight into SARM1 function, we generated an epitope-tagged SARM1 mouse. In these mice, we observed high SARM1 protein expression in the brain and brainstem and lower but detectable levels in macrophages. Overall, the generation of these SARM1 knockout and epitope-tagged mice has clarified that SARM1 is expressed in mouse macrophages yet has no general role in macrophage transcriptional regulation and has provided important new models to further explore SARM1 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciara G Doran
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Ryoichi Sugisawa
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Michael Carty
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Fiona Roche
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Claire Fergus
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Karsten Hokamp
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Vincent P Kelly
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Andrew G Bowie
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
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