Sensory, physicochemical and rheological properties of plant‐based milk alternatives made from soybean, peanut, adlay, adzuki bean, oat and buckwheat

The effect of gelatinisation and enzymatic hydrolysis methods on the starch, sugar and physicochemical profiles of faba bean milk

This study aimed to address challenges of colloidal instability and undesirable sensory properties associated with starch in pulse-based dairy alternatives by investigating enzymatic starch hydrolysis in faba bean milk (FBM). The effects of gelatinisation temperature (60-95 °C) and enzymatic hydrolysis methods (including single enzyme with α-amylase and a multi-enzyme blend containing α-amylase, pullulanase, protease, cellulase, xylanase and lipase) were evaluated on starch and sugar profiles, micromorphology, and rheological properties of FBM. Unhydrolysed FBM exhibited a larger median particle size (114.58 μm), while enzyme-treated samples showed a reduction in particle sizes (38.53-67.63 μm). Both enzymatic treatments resulted in an 85-92 % reduction in starch content, with glucose and maltodextrin levels remaining consistent across different gelatinisation temperatures and hydrolysis variations. Hydrolysis also enhanced colloidal stability by reducing dry sediment (9.55 %) and sedimentation rate (4.69 %/hr) by approximately 45 % and 59 %, respectively. FBM hydrolysed with the multi-enzyme blend displayed lower viscosity (0.07 Pa.s) and consistency coefficient (0.28 Pa.sn) compared to the α-amylase treated samples, likely due to additional peptide breakdown. These findings suggest that a separate pre-gelatinisation stage is not essential for an effective hydrolysis of FBM starch as gelatinisation likely occurs concurrently with enzymatic treatment at 70 °C. Both single and multi-enzyme hydrolysis methods offer promising benefits for improving the sensory properties of FBM and warrant further exploration in future studies.

Beyond Imitation: How Food Colloids Are Shaping the Next Generation of Biomimetic Foods

In the new global landscape of population, environmental, and energy sustainability, the manufacture of future food products that meet human nutritional and health needs is a major challenge. Biomimetic food, as a new type of food, has made significant progress in the use of plant proteins and other ingredients to mimic animal food, and it has also achieved important results in sensory and nutritional properties. In the study of biomimetic foods, food colloids play an irreplaceable role as the key framework for building food structures. In this paper, we first review the recent research progress on food colloids in the fields of biomimetic plant-based food, biomimetic animal-based food and 3D printed biomimetic food. Then, the mechanism of action, application effects, and quality improvement strategies of food colloids are deeply analyzed. Finally, the future research directions and application prospects are envisioned. This paper aims to give theoretical support and practical guidance for the development of biomimetic food through the above elaboration, to deal with the current problems in food development by means of the unique properties of food colloids, and to open up new ideas for the application of food colloids in future food innovation, and then to promote the further development of the field of biomimetic food.

Identification of Sensory Drivers of Liking of Plant-Based Milk Using a Novel Palm Kernel Milk-The Effect of Reformulation and Flavors Addition Through CATA and PCA Analysis

There is a growing demand for a plant-based diet (meat analogue/plant-based milk) due to an increase in awareness towards health issues, environmental sustainability, and animal ethical issues. The replacement of dairy has recently been one of the market efforts to fulfill such demand. Yet, challenges arise when consumers are reluctant to accept plant-based milk (PBM) due to the mismatch of organoleptic profile between PBM and the actual dairy. Hence, this study aims to understand the sensory drivers of liking in PBM through the development of a novel palm kernel milk (PKM 1.0). Furthermore, the study also aimed to examine the effect of reformulation (PKM 2.0) and flavor addition on sensorial acceptability improvement. Results showed that PKM 2.0 appeared similar to almond milk but is nutritionally denser like soymilk and oat milk. An acceptance score of 5.17 out of 9 was obtained for PKM 2.0 which is only slightly lower than 6.18 out of 9 and 6.36 out of 9 for oat milk and soymilk, respectively. Introducing flavors significantly improves the sample acceptance and reduces "bland" attributes. A high acceptance score of 7.24 out of 9 was obtained for chocolate-flavored PKM along with a strong correlation with "rich", "sweet", and "creamy" attributes. A correlation matrix showed that "smooth", "sweet", "roasted", "creamy", and "rich" are the attributes the consumers desired.

Beverages developed from pseudocereals (quinoa, buckwheat, and amaranth): Nutritional and functional properties

The rising global demand for nutritious, sustainable, and plant-based beverages has catalyzed interest in pseudocereal-based products, offering an innovative alternative to traditional cereals. Pseudocereals such as quinoa, buckwheat, and amaranth are valued for their exceptional nutritional profiles, including high-quality proteins, dietary fibers, and bioactive compounds. This review explores the development of pseudocereal-based beverages, emphasizing their potential as milk alternatives, fermented drinks, and beer products. The fermentation process enhances their nutritional value, bioavailability, and sensory attributes, while also reducing antinutritional factors like phytates and saponins. Moreover, these beverages exhibit promising health benefits, including antioxidant, hypoglycemic, antidiabetic, and antihypertensive effects. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of pseudocereal-based beverages from regulatory considerations to production processes, highlighting the potential of these ancient grains in reshaping the beverage industry while addressing modern nutritional needs. Future research directions on pseudocereal-based beverages are also suggested.

Molecular investigation of soybean protein for improving the stability of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa willd.) milk substitute

Soybean could greatly improve stability of quinoa milk substitute. However, the key compound and underlying mechanisms remained unclear. Here we showed that soybean protein was the key component for improving quinoa milk substitute stability but not oil or okara. Supplementary level of soybean protein at 0%, 2%, 4%, and 8% of quinoa (w/w) was optimized. Median level at 4% could effectively enhance physical stability, reduce particle size, narrow down particle size distribution, and decrease apparent viscosity of quinoa milk substitute. Microscopic observation further confirmed that soybean protein could prevent phase separation. Besides, soybean protein showed increased surface hydrophobicity. Molecular docking simulated that soybean protein but not quinoa protein, could provide over 10 anchoring points for the most abundant quinoa vanillic acid, through hydrogen bond and Van-der-Waals. These results contribute to improve stability of quinoa based milk substitute, and provide theoretical basis for the interaction of quinoa phenolics and soybean protein.

Screening and Characterization of 1,8-Cineole-Based Solvents as an Alternative to Hexane for Obtaining Nonpolar Compounds from Plant-Based Milk Coproducts

The design of new hydrophobic solvents is essential for replacing the toxic hexane for extracting nonpolar compounds such as fatty acids. On the other hand, the full use of plant matrices seeking to obtain new food and pharmaceutical products from their coproducts has also been the focus of sustainable processes. This study proposed new solvents for replacing hexane to extract fatty acids and hydrophobic bioactive compounds from coproducts obtained from almond- and peanut-based milk processing. The COSMO-RS method was used to select terpene-based mixtures to substitute hexane. Experimentally, four liquid solvents were formed from 1:2 tetradecanol/1,8-cineole (TE/EU), 1:2 camphor/1,8-cineole (CA/EU), 1:1 oleic acid/1,8-cineole (OL/EU), and 1:1 menthol/1,8-cineole (ME/EU). DSC analyses indicated the reduction of the CA/EU, OL/EU, and ME/EU melting points concerning their components. However, the melting point values predicted by the COSMO for obtaining eutectic mixtures differed. CA/EU was the only mixture with a melting point lower than the COSMO-RS-predicted one. In contrast, the FTIR spectra did not provide a clear visualization of the hydrogen bond formation between camphor and 1,8-cineole. This could be due to the formation of weak hydrogen bonds, a phenomenon observed in other studies. Nevertheless, these solvents have the advantage of low viscosity, a promising feature that likely facilitated mass transfer in the extraction of hydrophobic compounds from almond and peanut coproducts. ME/EU provided the same global extraction yield as hexane and higher phytosterol extraction from almond coproducts. On the other hand, CA/EU provided the same global yield and squalene content as hexane from peanut coproducts. The extracts can be directly used in food and pharmaceutical applications since the solvents are usually part of the formulations. However, DSC and TGA-DTA analyses indicated possible ways to separate the solvents.

A comparison of the quality of UHT milk and its plant-based analogs

The aim of this study was to compare selected physical (density) and physicochemical (color, pH, titratable acidity) properties and the fatty acid profile of dairy UHT milk and its plant-based analogs, i.e., almond, soy, rice, oat, and coconut beverages. Ten products of each type were analyzed in each group. UHT milk was characterized by higher values of color lightness (L*) and titratable acidity than all plant-based milk alternatives, higher yellowness (b*) than rice drink, higher density than almond drink, and higher pH than rice and coconut drinks. In comparison with UHT milk, all plant-based beverages were characterized by higher redness (a*), soy drink was characterized by higher values of b* and chroma (C*), and almond and soy drinks had higher pH values. In the group of non-dairy beverages, the values of b* and C* were highest in soy drink, and the value of a* was highest in almond drink. Almond drink had the highest pH value, and soy and coconut drinks had the highest titratable acidity. Rice drink had higher density than oat, soy and almond drinks. The indicators characterizing the nutritional value of fat were considerably lower in coconut drink and dairy milk than in the remaining products. The values of UFA/SFA, MUFA/SFA, and DFA/OFA ratios and the indicator of nutritional value were highest in rice drink. The PUFA/SFA ratio and the total content of EFAs were highest in soy drink, and the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio was highest in almond drink.

Review of plant-based milk analogue: its preparation, nutritional, physicochemical, and organoleptic properties

In recent years, the market demand for plant-based milk analogues has been rising because of health concerns with bovine milk, like lactose intolerance and hypercholesteremia. Another reason is the lifestyle changes like adopting veganism. This review aims to offer a layout of the manufacturing process and discuss the different properties of plant-based milk analogues. The health benefits offered by the plant-based milk analogues and measures taken to eliminate the existing limitations are also discussed. Sensory profile and stability of plant-based milk analogues which add to the quality of the product were also taken into account and reviewed. The current review's objective is to present a comprehensive, scientifically comparable overview of the preparation procedures, nutritional content, and sensory characteristics of plant-based milk analogues. This is done while keeping in mind the potential of plant-based milk substitutes and associated challenges.

Oat-based milk alternatives: the influence of physical and chemical properties on the sensory profile

Introduction

Oat-based milk alternatives (OMAs) have become increasingly popular, perhaps due to their low allergenicity and preferred sensory attributes when compared to other milk alternatives. They may also provide health benefits from unique compounds; avenanthramides, avenacosides, and the dietary fibre beta-glucan. This has led to a variety of commercial options becoming available. Being a fairly new product, in comparison to other plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs), means little research has been undertaken on the sensory profile, and how it is influenced by the physical and chemical properties.

Methods

This study investigated the sensory, physical and chemical profiles of current commercially available OMAs, that varied in fortification, use of stabilisers, and oat content. The volatile compounds and their respective aromas were analysed using solid phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O). Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used for identification of avenanthramides and avenacosides. Particle size and polydispersity index (PDI) were analysed using a Mastersizer and Zetasizer, respectively, with colour analysis carried out using a colourimeter, and viscosity measurements using a rheometer. Descriptive sensory profiling was used to assess the impact on the sensory characteristics of the different samples and the sensory data acquired were correlated with the instrumental data.

Results

Samples with smaller particle size appeared whiter-both instrumentally and perceptually. The only clear plastic packaged product differed substantially in volatile profile from all other products, with a higher abundance of many volatile compounds, and high overall perceived aroma. Avenanthramides and avenacosides were present in all samples, but differed significantly in abundance between them.

Discussion

The results suggested smaller particle size leads to whiter colour, whilst differences in processing and packaging may contribute to significant differences in aroma. Astringency did not differ significantly between samples, suggesting that the variation in the concentrations of avenacosides and avenanthramides were below noticeable differences.

Composition, functional properties, health benefits and applications of oilseed proteins: A systematic review

Common oilseeds, such as soybean, peanut, rapeseed, sunflower seed, sesame seed and chia seed, are key sources of edible vegetable oils. Their defatted meals are excellent natural sources of plant proteins that can meet consumers' demand for health and sustainable substitutes for animal proteins. Oilseed proteins and their derived peptides are also associated with many health benefits, including weight loss and reduced risks of diabetes, hypertension, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular events. This review summarizes the current status of knowledge on the protein and amino acid composition of common oilseeds as well as the functional properties, nutrition, health benefits and food applications of oilseed protein. Currently, oilseeds are widely applied in the food industry regarding for their health benefits and good functional properties. However, most oilseed proteins are incomplete proteins and their functional properties are not promising compared to animal proteins. They are also limited in the food industry due to their off-flavor, allergenic and antinutritional factors. These properties can be improved by protein modification. Therefore, in order to make better use of oilseed proteins, methods for improving their nutrition value, bioactive activity, functional and sensory characteristics, as well as the strategies for reducing their allergenicity were also discussed in this paper. Finally, examples for the application of oilseed proteins in the food industry are presented. Limitations and future perspectives for developing oilseed proteins as food ingredients are also pointed out. This review aims to foster thinking and generate novel ideas for future research. It will also provide novel ideas and broad prospects for the application of oilseeds in the food industry.

Colour descriptors for plant-based milk alternatives discrimination

Colour characteristics of plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs: almond, coconut, cashew, oat, soy) were monitored during long-term storage to select suitable descriptors for PBMAs differentiation. All colour descriptors evaluated varied depending on the raw material used in the plant-based milk alternative production. Long-term storage of plant-based beverages resulted in slightly noticeable (0.5-1.5) and noticeable (1.5-3.0) colour changes. Based on all colour descriptors, an absolute differentiation of PBMAs according to the type of raw material and storage time was achieved using canonical discriminant analysis. The results also indicate the possibility of using colour descriptors to detect the addition of honey to these products. Statistical analysis identified yellowness, browning index and lightness as the most discriminating parameters.

Optimization of the Processing Conditions for the Production of a Gluten-Free Bread from Sour Cassava Starch (Manihot esculenta) and Some Legumes (Arachis hypogaea, Vigna unguiculata, and Glycine max)

BACKGROUND

Sour cassava starch is used as an alternative to wheat flour in breadmaking. However, its nutritional and technological properties are limited. To remedy this, the use of legumes has proved to be very successful. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the optimal condition for the production of bread made from sour cassava starch, peanut, cowpea and soybean flour.

METHODS

The I-optimal design was employed to obtain an optimal proportion of the mixture with the variables sour cassava starch, cowpea, soy and peanut flour. The responses evaluated were overall acceptability, specific volume and protein content.

RESULTS

It resulted that the incorporation of sour cassava starch positively influenced the volume but negatively influenced the protein content and overall acceptability. While the addition of legumes increased protein content and overall consumer acceptability, the specific volume was reduced. The optimal proportions of sour cassava starch, cowpea, soybean and peanut flour were 64.11%, 18.92%, 0% and 16.96%, respectively. Under this condition, it led to a desirability of 1, specific volume of 1.35, overall acceptability of 6.13, protein content of 9.72%, carbohydrate content of 67.89%, fat content of 9.39%, fiber content of 2.10% and ash content of 1.04%.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that cowpea and peanut can be used for the improvement of the technological, nutritional and sensory properties of sour cassava starch bread and thus increase its consumption and application in the food processing industry.

Novel Milk Substitute Based on Pea, Bean and Sunflower Seeds with Natural Bioactive Stabilisers

The aim of this research was to create a plant-based beverage based on seeds of sunflower (Helianthus annuus), pea (Pisum sativum) and runner bean (Phaseolus multiflorus). The selection of the ingredients was based on the main objective to obtain the nutritional value and sensory characteristics of a formed product similar to cow's milk. The ingredient proportions were created by comparing the protein, fat and carbohydrate content of seeds versus cow's milk. Due to the observed low long-term stability of plant-seed-based drinks, a water binding guar gum, a thickener in the form of locust bean gum and gelling citrus amidated pectin containing dextrose were added and evaluated as functional stabilisers. All of the designed and created systems were subjected to selected methods of characterisation of the most important final product properties, such as rheology, colour, emulsion and turbidimetric stability. Rheological analysis confirmed the highest stability of the variant supplemented with 0.5% guar gum. Both stability and colour measurements indicated the positive characteristics of the system supplemented with 0.4% pectin. Finally, the product with 0.5% guar gum was identified as the most distinctive and similar vegetable drink to cow's milk.

A Prospective Review of the Sensory Properties of Plant-Based Dairy and Meat Alternatives with a Focus on Texture

Consumers are interested in plant-based alternatives (PBAs) to dairy and meat products, and as such, the food industry is responding by developing a variety of different plant-based food items. For these products to be successful, their textural properties must be acceptable to consumers. These textural properties need to be thoroughly investigated using different sensory methodologies to ensure consumer satisfaction. This review paper aims to summarize the various textural properties of PBAs, as well as to discuss the sensory methodologies that can be used in future studies of PBAs. PBAs to meat have been formulated using a variety of production technologies, but these products still have textural properties that differ from animal-based products. Most dairy and meat alternatives attempt to mimic their conventional counterparts, yet sensory trials rarely compare the PBAs to their meat or dairy counterparts. While most studies rely on consumers to investigate the acceptability of their products' textural properties, future studies should include dynamic sensory methodologies, and attribute diagnostics questions to help product developers characterize the key sensory properties of their products. Studies should also indicate whether the product is meant to mimic a conventional product and should define the target consumer segment (ex. flexitarian, vegan) for the product. The importance of textural properties to PBAs is repeatedly mentioned in the literature and thus should be thoroughly investigated using robust sensory methodologies.

Physical–Chemical and Sensory Quality of Oat Milk Produced Using Different Cultivars

Oat milk, as an emerging plant-based milk substitute, has become popular in recent years. However, the stability and flavor of oat milk products are hindering their quality. The examination of the processing capacities of potential oat cultivars could help to improve product quality. In the present study, the properties of oat milk produced from one Australian and three Chinese cultivars were compared. The stability of oat milk produced using our manufacturing process was superior to the commercial product and was highly influenced by cultivars. Positive correlations of the cultivar’s protein and plant cell debris content with the final products’ separation rate, and the cultivar’s lipid content with the final products’ creaming, were observed. Among the investigated cultivars, Chinese Bayou 01 (ZBY01) was the most suitable for oat milk processing. Oat milk produced with this cultivar has better stability and sensory acceptability. It can provide around 1% of protein, 9.84 mg/mL of β-glucan, and 70.96 mg GAE/100 g DW of polyphenols. Our results support one Chinese cultivar for oat milk processing and provide possible criteria for raw material selection.

The Potential Use of Cold-Pressed Coconut Oil By-Product as an Alternative Source in the Production of Plant-Based Drink and Plant-Based Low-Fat Ice Cream: The Rheological, Thermal, and Sensory Properties of Plant-Based Ice Cream

This study aimed to investigate the potential use of cold-pressed coconut oil by-products (COB) as a low-cost alternative source for plant-based drink and ice cream production. Firstly, a plant-based drink was produced from cold-pressed coconut oil by-products (COB drink) and compared with a commercial coconut drink. The fat, protein, and zeta potential values of coconut drink obtained from COB were higher than those of the commercial samples. In addition, the particle size value of the drink obtained from COB was found to be lower than that of the commercial drink. In the second stage, full-fat and low-fat plant-based ice cream samples using COB drink were produced and compared to control ice cream samples (produced by the commercial coconut drink) in terms of rheological, sensorial, and thermal properties. Rheological analysis showed that all plant-based ice cream samples indicated pseudoplastic, solid-like, and recoverable characteristics. Low-fat commercial control ice cream samples (C1) indicated the lowest K value (9.05 Pasⁿ), whereas the low-fat plant-based ice cream sample produced by the COB drink (COB-3) exhibited the highest K value (17.69 Pasⁿ). ΔH_f values of the plant-based ice cream samples varied from 144.70 J/g to 172.70 J/g. The low-fat COB ice cream stabilized with 3% COB and full-fat COB ice cream samples showed lower ΔH_f values than control ice cream samples, indicating that the COB ice cream showed desired thermal properties. The COB drink may be utilized in plant-based ice cream without altering sensory qualities, and low-fat ice cream could be manufactured in the same manner to attain full-fat ice cream quality characteristics. The results of this study demonstrated that COB can be successfully used as an inexpensive raw material source in the production of full-fat and reduced-fat vegetable-based ice cream.

Valorization of Common (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) and Tartary (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) Buckwheat in Gluten-Free Polenta Samples: Chemical-Physical and Sensory Characterization

In recent years, increasing attention has been addressed to buckwheat, an interesting minor crop with an excellent nutritional profile that contributes to the sustainability and biodiversity of the agri-food system. However, the high content of rutin and quercitin present in this pseudocereal can elicit undesirable sensory properties, such as bitterness and astringency, that can limit its exploitation in food formulations. The aim of the present study was to characterize six gluten-free porridge-type formulations (called polenta) prepared using corn and buckwheat flour. Specifically, polenta samples were prepared adding common (CB) or Tartary buckwheat (TB) flour at 20% (CB20; TB20), 30% (CB30; TB30), and 40% (CB40; TB40) to corn flour. Product characterization included sensory and instrumental analyses (electronic tongue, colorimeter, and Texture Analyzer). Products containing Tartary buckwheat were darker, firmer, and characterized by a higher intensity of bitter taste and astringency than those prepared with common buckwheat. In this context, the impact of buckwheat species seems to be more important at 30% and 40% levels, suggesting that lower additions may mask the differences between the species. The gathered information could support the food industry in re-formulating products with buckwheat. Finally, findings about the relationship between instrumental and sensory data might be exploited by the food industry to decide/choose what indices to use to characterize new formulations and/or new products.

Non-Bovine Milk: Sources and Future Prospects

Milk is the first food that mammals are exposed to [...]