T-cell metabolism governing activation, proliferation and differentiation; a modular view

Unlocking the potential of immune checkpoint inhibitors in advanced cervical cancer: a meta-analysis and systematic review

OBJECTIVE

This meta-analysis systematically evaluated the effectiveness and safety of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in treating advanced cervical cancer, emphasizing their potential as transformative therapeutic options in this complex clinical landscape.

METHODS

EMBASE, Web of Science, PubMed, and the Cochrane Library were thoroughly searched for articles on the outcomes of ICIs in advanced cervical cancer patients. A pooled analysis was performed to evaluate the objective response rate (ORR: reported as an odds ratio (OR), progression-free survival (PFS; hazard ratio (HR), overall survival (OS; HR), and safety outcomes risk ratio (RR). Subgroup and sensitivity analyses were also conducted to identify potential sources of bias and heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Our meta-analysis included 5 studies involving 3,112 patients. Compared with standard therapies, treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) significantly improved the objective response rate (ORR; OR = 1.68, 95% CI = 1.27-2.23), prolonged progression-free survival (PFS; HR = 0.72, 95% CI = 0.65-0.80), and extended overall survival (OS; HR = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.61-0.79). Subgroup analyses revealed potential predictors of treatment response. Moreover, ICIs exhibit a manageable safety profile, with adverse events consistent with known immune-related toxicities.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis highlights the promising efficacy and favourable safety profile of immune checkpoint inhibitors in advanced cervical cancer. These findings suggest a paradigm shift in treatment strategies, with ICIs emerging as a potential cornerstone therapy. Further research is warranted to elucidate optimal patient selection, combination therapies, and long-term outcomes. This study provides valuable insights for clinicians and researchers, paving the way for personalized and effective treatment approaches for advanced cervical cancer.

Metabolic reprogramming driven by Ant2 deficiency augments T Cell function and anti-tumor immunity in mice

T cell activation requires a substantial increase in NAD+ production, often exceeding the capacity of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). To investigate how T cells adapt to this metabolic challenge, we generate T cell-specific ADP/ATP translocase-2 knockout (Ant2-/-) mice. Loss of Ant2, a crucial protein mediating ADP/ATP exchange between mitochondria and cytoplasm, induces OXPHOS restriction by limiting ATP synthase activity, thereby impeding NAD+ regeneration. Interestingly, Ant2-/- naïve T cells exhibit enhanced activation, proliferation and effector functions compared to wild-type controls. Metabolic profiling reveals that these T cells adopt an activated-like metabolic program with increased mitobiogenesis and anabolism. Lastly, pharmacological inhibition of ANT in wild-type T cells recapitulates the Ant2-/- phenotype and improves adoptive T cell therapy of cancer in mouse models. Our findings thus suggest that Ant2-deficient T cells bypass the typical metabolic reprogramming required for activation, leading to enhanced T cell function and highlighting the therapeutic potential of targeting ANT for immune modulation.

T cell dysregulation in rheumatoid arthritis: Recent advances and natural product interventions

Autoimmune diseases result from chronic and dysregulated activation of the immune system, culminating in pathological self-tissue damage. These disorders are primarily driven by adaptive immune responses, particularly those mediated by T and B lymphocytes, which mistakenly target self-antigens expressed in host tissues. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the pathogenesis is closely associated with the emergence of tissue-invasive effector T cells and the functional impairment of regulatory T cells (Tregs), both of which play pivotal roles in disease progression. Therapeutic interventions targeting these dysregulated T cell populations have emerged as a promising strategy for RA management. Although synthetic immunosuppressants remain the mainstay of RA treatment, their long-term application is often hampered by adverse effects, diminished therapeutic efficacy, and poor patient adherence. These limitations highlight the critical need for the development of novel therapeutic approaches. Natural compounds derived from medicinal plants have been widely utilized in the clinical management of RA, with growing evidence supporting their immunomodulatory potential, particularly in restoring T cell-mediated immune tolerance. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent advances in understanding T cell dysregulation in RA and to elucidate the mechanisms through which natural compounds regulate immune responses. By integrating current findings, this work seeks to offer a theoretical foundation for the optimized use of natural compounds in the treatment of RA, while exploring their potential in advancing precision medicine and personalized therapeutic strategies.

Nicotinamide Inhibits CD4+ T-Cell Activation and Function

Chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases are driven, in part, by the activation of (auto)reactive CD4+ T-cells, highlighting their potential as therapeutic targets for these diseases. Nicotinamide (NAM) has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties in various disease models and has already demonstrated safety in several large clinical trials in humans. The mechanisms behind these observations, and especially their direct effects on CD4+ T-cells, remain poorly understood. Here, we address this gap by investigating how NAM influences CD4+ T-cell activation and function. We also describe that NAM treatment significantly suppresses CD4+ T-cell activation in vitro, as evidenced by impaired proliferation and reduced expression of surface activation markers. Additionally, NAM treatment resulted in reduced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-2, IFNy, and IL-17, further highlighting its anti-inflammatory potential. We found that NAM modulates key metabolic processes, including glycolysis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production-both essential to T-cell activation. Taken together, our findings provide novel mechanistic insight into the regulation of T-cell activation by NAM, suggesting NAM as an attractive candidate for novel therapies targeting immune-related diseases.

High Extracellular K+ Skews T-Cell Differentiation Towards Tumour Promoting Th2 and Treg Subsets

Potassium ions (K+) released from dying necrotic tumour cells accumulate in the tumour microenvironment (TME) and increase the local K+ concentration to 50 mM (high-[K+]e). Here, we demonstrate that high-[K+]e decreases expression of the T-cell receptor subunits CD3ε and CD3ζ and co-stimulatory receptor CD28 and thereby dysregulates intracellular signal transduction cascades. High-[K+]e also alters the metabolic profiles of T-cells, limiting the metabolism of glucose and glutamine, consistent with functional exhaustion. These changes skew T-cell differentiation, favouring Th2 and iTreg subsets that promote tumour growth while restricting antitumour Th1 and Th17 subsets. Similar phenotypes were noted in T-cells present within the necrosis-prone core versus the outer zones of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)/colorectal carcinoma (CRC) tumours as analysed by GeoMx digital spatial profiling and flow-cytometry. Our results thus expand the understanding of the contribution of high-[K+]e to the immunosuppressive milieu in the TME.

Microenvironmental β-TrCP negates amino acid transport to trigger CD8+ T cell exhaustion in human non-small cell lung cancer

CD8+ T cell exhaustion (Tex) has been widely acknowledged in human cancer, while the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that reduced amino acid (aa) metabolism and mTOR inactivation are accountable for Tex in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). NSCLC cells impede the T cell-intrinsic transcription of SLC7A5 and SLC38A1, disrupting aa transport and consequently leading to mTOR inactivation. Further, the ubiquitination of YAP1 protein is the basis for NSCLC-mediated transcriptional inhibition of aa transporters. Mechanistically, NSCLC cells transfer β-TrCP-containing exosomes into T cells, inducing YAP1 ubiquitination and Tex. Consequently, inhibiting cancer-associated β-TrCP effectively restores the anti-tumor immune response of CD8+ T cells and curtails tumor growth in NSCLC patient-derived organoids. Together, our findings highlight a β-TrCP-dependent mechanism in steering intrinsic metabolic adaptation and CD8+ Tex, emphasizing microenvironmental β-TrCP as an immune checkpoint for therapeutic exploration against human NSCLC.

Unlocking the full potential of memory T cells in adoptive T cell therapy for hematologic malignancies

In recent years, immune cell therapy, particularly adoptive cell therapy (ACT), has shown superior therapeutic effects on hematologic malignancies. However, a challenge lies in ensuring that genetically engineered specific T cells maintain lasting anti-tumor effects within the host. The enduring success of ACT therapy hinges on the persistence of memory T (TM) cells, a diverse cell subset crucial for tumor immune response and immune memory upkeep. Notably, TM cell subsets at varying differentiation stages exhibit distinct biological traits and anti-tumor capabilities. Poorly differentiated TM cells are pivotal for favorable clinical outcomes in ACT. The differentiation of TM cells is influenced by multiple factors, including metabolism and cytokines. Consequently, current research focuses on investigating the differentiation patterns of TM cells and enhancing the production of poorly differentiated TM cells with potent anti-tumor properties in vitro, which is a prominent area of interest globally. This review delves into the differentiation features of TM cells, outlining their distribution in patients and their impact on ACT treatment. It comprehensively explores cutting-edge strategies to boost ACT efficacy through TM cell differentiation induction, aiming to unlock the full potential of TM cells in treating hematologic malignancies and offering novel insights for tumor immune cell therapy.

Using Seahorse Technology as an Efficient Way of Verifying T Cell Stimulation

Antibody-dependent stimulation is commonly used to activate, differentiate, and/or to expand T cells for downstream analysis and functions. Such stimulations are inherently connected to endogenous phosphorylation which is commonly assessed using various methods including immunoblotting. However, antibody-dependent stimulation of T cells is also inherently connected to changes in endogenous metabolic activity. We describe methods used to stimulate T cells using soluble and immobilized antibodies in conjunction with immunosuppressive cyclic AMP (cAMP). The stimulations were assessed by downstream phosphorylation using immunoblotting and metabolic changes using Seahorse technology. We use phosphorylation of ERK 1/2, extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) and oxygen consumption rate (OCR) as readouts to represent the activation state of T cells. We also describe how these methods can be used to assess inhibitory stimuli exemplified by the cAMP analogue 8-(4-Chlorophenylthio) adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-CPT-cAMP), but only if 8-CPT-cAMP is added before anti-CD3. Together the methods described in this chapter provide a comprehensive guideline to isolate, stimulate, and assess T cell stimulation. Moreover, we demonstrate the Seahorse technology as a time and work-efficient way of assessing the effects of T cell stimulation in real time.

DAMP-ing IBD: Extinguish the Fire and Prevent Smoldering

In inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), the most promising therapies targeting cytokines or immune cell trafficking demonstrate around 40% efficacy. As IBD is a multifactorial inflammation of the intestinal tract, a single-target approach is unlikely to solve this problem, necessitating an alternative strategy that addresses its variability. One approach often overlooked by the pharmaceutically driven therapeutic options is to address the impact of environmental factors. This is somewhat surprising considering that IBD is increasingly viewed as a condition heavily influenced by such factors, including diet, stress, and environmental pollution-often referred to as the "Western lifestyle". In IBD, intestinal responses result from a complex interplay among the genetic background of the patient, molecules, cells, and the local inflammatory microenvironment where danger- and microbe-associated molecular patterns (D/MAMPs) provide an adjuvant-rich environment. Through activating DAMP receptors, this array of pro-inflammatory factors can stimulate, for example, the NLRP3 inflammasome-a major amplifier of the inflammatory response in IBD, and various immune cells via non-specific bystander activation of myeloid cells (e.g., macrophages) and lymphocytes (e.g., tissue-resident memory T cells). Current single-target biological treatment approaches can dampen the immune response, but without reducing exposure to environmental factors of IBD, e.g., by changing diet (reducing ultra-processed foods), the adjuvant-rich landscape is never resolved and continues to drive intestinal mucosal dysregulation. Thus, such treatment approaches are not enough to put out the inflammatory fire. The resultant smoldering, low-grade inflammation diminishes physiological resilience of the intestinal (micro)environment, perpetuating the state of chronic disease. Therefore, our hypothesis posits that successful interventions for IBD must address the complexity of the disease by simultaneously targeting all modifiable aspects: innate immunity cytokines and microbiota, adaptive immunity cells and cytokines, and factors that relate to the (micro)environment. Thus the disease can be comprehensively treated across the nano-, meso-, and microscales, rather than with a focus on single targets. A broader perspective on IBD treatment that also includes options to adapt the DAMPing (micro)environment is warranted.

The Cytokine Levels of Cord Blood- and Wharton's Jelly-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Early to Late Passages

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are promising for clinical studies owing to their self-renewal, multipotency, trophic, and immunomodulatory properties. This study aimed to investigate the cytokine levels of human umbilical cord blood (CB) and Wharton's Jelly-(WJ) derived MSCs relevant to immune modulation on different passage levels in vitro. Umbilical CB MSCs were isolated using the ficoll-paque gradient method, and WJ-MSCs were isolated by the explant method. After isolation, the MSCs were characterized using flow cytometry. The supernatant cytokine levels (interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 4 (IL-4), interleukin 17 (IL-17)) of MSCs at each passage were evaluated using the ELISA assay. MSCs exhibited different cytokine levels with each passage number. In WJ-MSC culture supernatants, IL-17 levels significantly increased at P4 and P5 compared to the first passage (p < 0.005), while the other passages showed a decrease. IFN-γ levels increased at passage P1 and P4 and decreased at other passages (p < 0.005). IL-4 levels significantly increased only at passage P3 (p < 0.005). In CB-MSC culture supernatants, IL-17 and IL-4 cytokines decreased compared to P0, while IFN-γ cytokine increased from P0 (p < 0.005). The changing ratio of cytokine levelsfor both CB-MSCs and WJ-MSCs were similarly maintained from early to late passages. More research is needed to understand the immunomodulatory functions of MSCs.

In vitro impacts of glyphosate on manatee lymphocytes

Exposure to contaminants, such as the herbicide glyphosate, can suppress protective immune functions. Glyphosate is the herbicide most used worldwide and has been found in the plasma of more than 50 % of the Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and all-year-round in their aquatic environment. Our objectives were to analyze the consequences of glyphosate exposure on their immune responses via T-lymphocyte proliferation assays and transcriptomics. We isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (mainly lymphocytes) of free-ranging manatees and performed T-cell proliferation assays. We used transcriptomics to understand the consequences of glyphosate in vitro exposure. The three doses chosen ranged from environmentally relevant concentrations at 10 to 10,000 µg.L-1 that is considered an environmental contamination scenario. Glyphosate caused a dose-dependent reduction in T-lymphocyte proliferation, with a significant mean reduction of 27.3 % at 10,000 µg.L-1 and up to 51.5 % in some individuals. Additionally, T-lymphocyte proliferation was significantly reduced in mid-winter compared to early winter. Transcriptomic analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells indicated that all doses of glyphosate (10, 1,000, and 10,000 µg.L-1) resulted in up-regulation of genes related to acute phase inflammation and inhibition of the T-lymphocyte proliferation pathway. Exposure to this contaminant along with other environmental stressors, such as extreme winters and red tide, might further affect the adaptive immune response of this threatened species.

Understanding lactate in the development of Hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) is a hepatotropic virus that can establish a persistent and chronic infection in humans. Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection is associated with an increased risk of hepatic decompensation, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Lactate level, as the end product of glycolysis, plays a substantial role in metabolism beyond energy production. Emerging studies indicate that lactate is linked to patient mortality rates, and HBV increases overall glucose consumption and lactate production in hepatocytes. Excessive lactate plays a role in regulating the tumor microenvironment (TME), immune cell function, autophagy, and epigenetic reprogramming. The purpose of this review is to gather and summarize the existing knowledge of the lactate's functions in the dysregulation of the immune system, which can play a crucial role in the development of HBV-related HCC. Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that lactate with intriguing functions can be considered an immunomodulatory metabolite in immunotherapy.

Extensive-stage small-cell lung cancer in patients receiving atezolizumab plus carboplatin-etoposide: stratification of outcome based on a composite score that combines gene expression profiling and immune characterization of microenvironment

PURPOSE

Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) is an aggressive disease with a dismal prognosis. The addition of immune checkpoints inhibitors to standard platinum-based chemotherapy in first-line setting achieves a durable benefit only in a patient subgroup. Thus, the identification of predictive biomarkers is an urgent unmet medical need.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Tumor samples from naive extensive-stage (ES) SCLC patients receiving atezolizumab plus carboplatin-etoposide were analyzed by gene expression profiling and two 9-color multiplex immunofluorescence panels, to characterize the immune infiltrate and SCLC subtypes. Associations of tissue biomarkers with time-to-treatment failure (TTF), progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS), were assessed.

RESULTS

42 patients were included. Higher expression of exhausted CD8-related genes was independently associated with a longer TTF and PFS while increased density of B lymphocytes correlated with longer TTF and OS. Higher percentage of M2-like macrophages close to tumor cells and of CD8+T cells close to CD4+T lymphocytes correlated with increased risk of TF and longer survival, respectively. A lower risk of TF, disease progression and death was associated with a higher density of ASCL1+tumor cells while the expression of POU2F3 correlated with a shorter survival. A composite score combining the expression of exhausted CD8-related genes, B lymphocyte density, ASCL1 tumor expression and quantification of CD163+macrophages close to tumor cells, was able to stratify patients into high-risk and low-risk groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we identified tissue biomarkers and a combined score that can predict a higher benefit from chemoimmunotherapy in ES-SCLC patients.

The role of innate and adaptive immunity in endometriosis

The innate and adaptive immune systems are the two key branches that determine host protection at all mucosal surfaces in human body, including the female reproductive tract. The pattern recognition receptors within the host that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns are expressed on the cells of the innate immune system. Rapidly reactive, theinnate immune system, responds immediately to the presence of infectious or other non-self agents, thereby launching an inflammatory response to protect the host until the activation of slower adaptive immune system. Macrophages, dendritic cells, and toll-like receptors are integral components of the innate immune system. In contrast, T-helper (Th1/Th2/Th17) cells and regulatory T (Treg) cells are the primary components of adaptive immune system. Studies showed that the growth and progression of endometriosis continue even in unilateral ovariectomized animal suggesting that besides ovarian steroid hormones, the growth of endometriosis could be regulated by innate/adaptive immune systems in pelvic environment. Recent reports demonstrated a potential role of Th1/Th2/Th17/Treg cells either individually or collectively in the initiation, maintenance, and progression of endometriosis. Herewe review the fundamental knowledge of innate and adaptive immunity and elaborate the role of innate and adaptive immunity in endometriosis based on both human and experimental data.

Single-cell transcriptomic landscape and the microenvironment of normal adjacent tissues in hypopharyngeal carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The cellular origin of hypopharyngeal diseases is crucial for further diagnosis and treatment, and the microenvironment in tissues may also be associated with specific cell types at the same time. Normal adjacent tissues (NATs) of hypopharyngeal carcinoma differ from non-tumor-bearing tissues, and can influenced by the tumor. However, the heterogeneity in kinds of disease samples remains little known, and the transcriptomic profile about biological information associated with disease occurrence and clinical outcome contained in it has yet to be fully evaluated. For these reasons, we should quickly investigate the taxonomic and transcriptomic information of NATs in human hypopharynx.

RESULTS

Single-cell suspensions of normal adjacent tissues (NATs) of hypopharyngeal carcinoma were obtained and single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) was performed. We present scRNA-seq data from 39,315 high-quality cells in the hypopharyngeal from five human donors, nine clusters of normal adjacent human hypopharyngeal cells were presented, including epithelial cells, endothelial cells (ECs), mononuclear phagocyte system cells (MPs), fibroblasts, T cells, plasma cells, B cells, mural cells and mast cells. Nonimmune components in the microenvironment, including epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and the subpopulations of them were performed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data provide a solid basis for the study of single-cell landscape in human normal adjacent hypopharyngeal tissues biology and related diseases.

Iron regulates the quiescence of naive CD4 T cells by controlling mitochondria and cellular metabolism

In response to an immune challenge, naive T cells undergo a transition from a quiescent to an activated state acquiring the effector function. Concurrently, these T cells reprogram cellular metabolism, which is regulated by iron. We and others have shown that iron homeostasis controls proliferation and mitochondrial function, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Given that iron derived from heme makes up a large portion of the cellular iron pool, we investigated iron homeostasis in T cells using mice with a T cell-specific deletion of the heme exporter, FLVCR1 [referred to as knockout (KO)]. Our finding revealed that maintaining heme and iron homeostasis is essential to keep naive T cells in a quiescent state. KO naive CD4 T cells exhibited an iron-overloaded phenotype, with increased spontaneous proliferation and hyperactive mitochondria. This was evidenced by reduced IL-7R and IL-15R levels but increased CD5 and Nur77 expression. Upon activation, however, KO CD4 T cells have defects in proliferation, IL-2 production, and mitochondrial functions. Iron-overloaded CD4 T cells failed to induce mitochondrial iron and exhibited more fragmented mitochondria after activation, making them susceptible to ferroptosis. Iron overload also led to inefficient glycolysis and glutaminolysis but heightened activity in the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway. Overall, these findings highlight the essential role of iron in controlling mitochondrial function and cellular metabolism in naive CD4 T cells, critical for maintaining their quiescent state.

Nrf2 regulates the activation-driven expansion of CD4 + T-cells by differentially modulating glucose and glutamine metabolism

Upon antigenic stimulation, CD4 + T-cells undergo clonal expansion, elevating their bioenergetic demands and utilization of nutrients like glucose and glutamine. The nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a well-known regulator of oxidative stress, but its involvement in modulating the metabolism of CD4 + T-cells remains unexplored. Here, we elucidate the role of Nrf2 beyond the traditional antioxidation, in modulating activation-driven expansion of CD4 + T-cells by influencing their nutrient metabolism. T-cell-specific activation of Nrf2 enhances early activation and IL-2 secretion, upregulates TCR-signaling, and increases activation-driven proliferation of CD4 + T-cells. Mechanistically, high Nrf2 inhibits glucose metabolism through glycolysis but promotes glutamine metabolism via glutaminolysis to support increased T-cell proliferation. Further, Nrf2 expression is temporally regulated in activated CD4 + T-cells with elevated expression during the early activation, but decreased expression thereafter. Overall, our findings uncover a novel role of Nrf2 as a metabolic modulator of CD4 + T-cells, thus providing a framework for improving Nrf2-targeting therapies and T-cell immunotherapies.

Immunometabolic Adaptation of CD19-Targeted CAR T Cells in the Central Nervous System Microenvironment of Patients Promotes Memory Development

Metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of T-cell activation, and metabolic fitness is fundamental for T-cell-mediated antitumor immunity. Insights into the metabolic plasticity of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells in patients could help identify approaches to improve their efficacy in treating cancer. Here, we investigated the spatiotemporal immunometabolic adaptation of CD19-targeted CAR T cells using clinical samples from CAR T-cell-treated patients. Context-dependent immunometabolic adaptation of CAR T cells demonstrated the link between their metabolism, activation, differentiation, function, and local microenvironment. Specifically, compared with the peripheral blood, low lipid availability, high IL15, and low TGFβ in the central nervous system microenvironment promoted immunometabolic adaptation of CAR T cells, including upregulation of a lipolytic signature and memory properties. Pharmacologic inhibition of lipolysis in cerebrospinal fluid led to decreased CAR T-cell survival. Furthermore, manufacturing CAR T cells in cerebrospinal fluid enhanced their metabolic fitness and antileukemic activity. Overall, this study elucidates spatiotemporal immunometabolic rewiring of CAR T cells in patients and demonstrates that these adaptations can be exploited to maximize the therapeutic efficacy of CAR T cells.

SIGNIFICANCE

The spatiotemporal immunometabolic landscape of CD19-targeted CAR T cells from patients reveals metabolic adaptations in specific microenvironments that can be exploited to maximize the therapeutic efficacy of CAR T cells.

Advances in reprogramming of energy metabolism in tumor T cells

Cancer is a leading cause of human death worldwide, and the modulation of the metabolic properties of T cells employed in cancer immunotherapy holds great promise for combating cancer. As a crucial factor, energy metabolism influences the activation, proliferation, and function of T cells, and thus metabolic reprogramming of T cells is a unique research perspective in cancer immunology. Special conditions within the tumor microenvironment and high-energy demands lead to alterations in the energy metabolism of T cells. In-depth research on the reprogramming of energy metabolism in T cells can reveal the mechanisms underlying tumor immune tolerance and provide important clues for the development of new tumor immunotherapy strategies as well. Therefore, the study of T cell energy metabolism has important clinical significance and potential applications. In the study, the current achievements in the reprogramming of T cell energy metabolism were reviewed. Then, the influencing factors associated with T cell energy metabolism were introduced. In addition, T cell energy metabolism in cancer immunotherapy was summarized, which highlighted its potential significance in enhancing T cell function and therapeutic outcomes. In summary, energy exhaustion of T cells leads to functional exhaustion, thus resulting in immune evasion by cancer cells. A better understanding of reprogramming of T cell energy metabolism may enable immunotherapy to combat cancer and holds promise for optimizing and enhancing existing therapeutic approaches.

Extracellular Delivery of Functional Mitochondria Rescues the Dysfunction of CD4+ T Cells in Aging

Mitochondrial dysfunction alters cellular metabolism, increases tissue oxidative stress, and may be principal to the dysregulated signaling and function of CD4+ T lymphocytes in the elderly. In this proof of principle study, it is investigated whether the transfer of functional mitochondria into CD4+ T cells that are isolated from old mice (aged CD4+ T cells), can abrogate aging-associated mitochondrial dysfunction, and improve the aged CD4+ T cell functionality. The results show that the delivery of exogenous mitochondria to aged non-activated CD4+ T cells led to significant mitochondrial proteome alterations highlighted by improved aerobic metabolism and decreased cellular mitoROS. Additionally, mito-transferred aged CD4+ T cells showed improvements in activation-induced TCR-signaling kinetics displaying markers of activation (CD25), increased IL-2 production, enhanced proliferation ex vivo. Importantly, immune deficient mouse models (RAG-KO) showed that adoptive transfer of mito-transferred naive aged CD4+ T cells, protected recipient mice from influenza A and Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. These findings support mitochondria as targets of therapeutic intervention in aging.

Examining Chronic Inflammation, Immune Metabolism, and T Cell Dysfunction in HIV Infection

Chronic Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection remains a significant challenge to global public health. Despite advances in antiretroviral therapy (ART), which has transformed HIV infection from a fatal disease into a manageable chronic condition, a definitive cure remains elusive. One of the key features of HIV infection is chronic immune activation and inflammation, which are strongly associated with, and predictive of, HIV disease progression, even in patients successfully treated with suppressive ART. Chronic inflammation is characterized by persistent inflammation, immune cell metabolic dysregulation, and cellular exhaustion and dysfunction. This review aims to summarize current knowledge of the interplay between chronic inflammation, immune metabolism, and T cell dysfunction in HIV infection, and also discusses the use of humanized mice models to study HIV immune pathogenesis and develop novel therapeutic strategies.

Regulated secretion of mutant p53 negatively affects T lymphocytes in the tumor microenvironment

Several studies have demonstrated the role of the oncogenic mutant p53 in promoting tumor progression; however, there is limited information on the effects of secreted oncogenic mutant p53 on the tumor microenvironment and tumor immune escape. In this study, we found that secretion of mutant p53, determined by exosome content, is dependent on its N-terminal dileucine motif via its binding to β-adaptin, and inhibited by the CHK2-mediated-Ser 20 phosphorylation. Moreover, we observed that the mutant p53 caused downregulation and dysfunction of CD4+ T lymphocytes in vivo and downregulated the levels and activities of rate-limiting glycolytic enzymes in vitro. Furthermore, inhibition of mutant p53 secretion by knocking down AP1B1 or mutation of dileucine motif could reverse the quantity and function of CD4+ T lymphocytes and restrain the tumor growth. Our study demonstrates that the tumor-derived exosome-mediated secretion of oncogenic mutant p53 inhibits glycolysis to alter the immune microenvironment via functional suppression of CD4+ T cells, which may be the underlying mechanism for tumor immune escape. Therefore, targeting TDE-mediated p53 secretion may serve as a potential therapeutic target for cancer treatment.

Hurdle or thruster: Glucose metabolism of T cells in anti-tumour immunity

Glucose metabolism is essential for the activation, differentiation and function of T cells and proper glucose metabolism is required to maintain effective T cell immunity. Dysregulation of glucose metabolism is a hallmark of cancer, and the tumour microenvironment (TME2) can create metabolic barriers in T cells that inhibit their anti-tumour immune function. Targeting glucose metabolism is a promising approach to improve the capacity of T cells in the TME. The efficacy of common immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs3) and adoptive cell transfer (ACT4), can be limited by T-cell function, and the treatment itself can affect T-cell metabolism. Therefore, understanding the relationship between immunotherapy and T cell glucose metabolism helps to achieve more effective anti-tumour therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of T cell glucose metabolism and how T cell metabolic reprogramming in the TME regulates anti-tumour responses, briefly describe the metabolic patterns of T cells during ICI and ACT therapies, which suggest possible synergistic strategies.

Dual COX-2/15-LOX inhibitors: A new avenue in the prevention of cancer

Dual cyclooxygenase 2/15-lipoxygenase inhibitors constitute a valuable alternative to classical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and selective COX-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) inhibitors for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, as well as preventing the cancer. Indeed, these latter present diverse side effects, which are reduced or absent in dual-acting agents. In this review, COX-2 and 15-LOX (15-lipoxygenase) pathways are first described in order to highlight the therapeutic interest of designing such compounds. Various structural families of dual inhibitors are illustrated. This study discloses various structural families of dual 15-LOX/COX-2 inhibitors, thus pave the way to design potentially-active anticancer agents with balanced dual inhibition of these enzymes.

The dysfunctional immune response in renal cell carcinoma correlates with changes in the metabolic landscape of ccRCC during disease progression

Renal cell carcinoma is an immunogenic tumour with a prominent dysfunctional immune cell infiltrate, unable to control tumour growth. Although tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immunotherapy have improved the outlook for some patients, many individuals are non-responders or relapse despite treatment. The hostile metabolic environment in RCC affects the ability of T-cells to maintain their own metabolic programme constraining T-cell immunity in RCC. We investigated the phenotype, function and metabolic capability of RCC TILs correlating this with clinicopathological features of the tumour and metabolic environment at the different disease stages. Flow cytometric analysis of freshly isolated TILs showed the emergence of exhausted T-cells in advanced disease based on their PD-1high and CD39 expression and reduced production of inflammatory cytokines upon in vitro stimulation. Exhausted T-cells from advanced stage disease also displayed an overall phenotype of metabolic insufficiency, characterized by mitochondrial alterations and defects in glucose uptake. Nanostring nCounter cancer metabolism assay on RNA obtained from 30 ccRCC cases revealed significant over-expression of metabolic genes even at early stage disease (pT1-2), while at pT3-4 and the locally advanced thrombi stages, there was an overall decrease in differentially expressed metabolic genes. Notably, the gene PPARGC1A was the most significantly down-regulated gene from pT1-2 to pT3-4 RCC which correlated with loss of mitochondrial function in tumour-infiltrating T-cells evident at this tumour stage. Down-regulation of PPARGC1A into stage pT3-4 may be the 'tipping-point' in RCC disease progression, modulating immune activity in ccRCC and potentially reducing the efficacy of immunotherapies in RCC and poorer patient outcomes.

BCL11B and the NuRD complex cooperatively guard T-cell fate and inhibit OPA1-mediated mitochondrial fusion in T cells

The nucleosome remodeling and histone deacetylase (NuRD) complex physically associates with BCL11B to regulate murine T-cell development. However, the function of NuRD complex in mature T cells remains unclear. Here, we characterize the fate and metabolism of human T cells in which key subunits of the NuRD complex or BCL11B are ablated. BCL11B and the NuRD complex bind to each other and repress natural killer (NK)-cell fate in T cells. In addition, T cells upregulate the NK cell-associated receptors and transcription factors, lyse NK-cell targets, and are reprogrammed into NK-like cells (ITNKs) upon deletion of MTA2, MBD2, CHD4, or BCL11B. ITNKs increase OPA1 expression and exhibit characteristically elongated mitochondria with augmented oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) activity. OPA1-mediated elevated OXPHOS enhances cellular acetyl-CoA levels, thereby promoting the reprogramming efficiency and antitumor effects of ITNKs via regulating H3K27 acetylation at specific targets. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that the NuRD complex and BCL11B cooperatively maintain T-cell fate directly by repressing NK cell-associated transcription and indirectly through a metabolic-epigenetic axis, providing strategies to improve the reprogramming efficiency and antitumor effects of ITNKs.

T Lymphocyte Metabolic Features and Techniques to Modulate Them

T cells demonstrate high degree of complexity and broad range of functions, which distinguish them from other immune cells. Throughout their lifetime, T lymphocytes experience several functional states: quiescence, activation, proliferation, differentiation, performance of effector and regulatory functions, memory formation, and apoptosis. Metabolism supports all functions of T cells, providing lymphocytes with energy, biosynthetic substrates, and signaling molecules. Therefore, T cells usually restructure their metabolism as they transition from one functional state to another. Strong association between the metabolism and T cell functions implies that the immune response can be controlled by manipulating metabolic processes within T lymphocytes. This review aims to highlight the main metabolic adaptations necessary for the T cell function, as well as the recent progress in techniques to modulate metabolic features of lymphocytes.

Development of a centrifugal bioreactor for rapid expansion of CD8 cytotoxic T cells for use in cancer immunotherapy

One of the current difficulties limiting the use of adoptive cell therapy (ACT) for cancer treatment is the lack of methods for rapidly expanding T cells. As described in the present report, we developed a centrifugal bioreactor (CBR) that may resolve this manufacturing bottleneck. The CBR operates in perfusion by balancing centrifugal forces with a continuous feed of fresh medium, preventing cells from leaving the expansion culture chamber while maintaining nutrients for growth. A bovine CD8 cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) cell line specific for an autologous target cell infected with a protozoan parasite, Theileria parva, was used to determine the efficacy of the CBR for ACT purposes. Batch culture experiments were conducted to predict how CTLs respond to environmental changes associated with consumption of nutrients and production of toxic metabolites, such as ammonium and lactate. Data from these studies were used to develop a kinetic growth model, allowing us to predict CTL growth in the CBR and determine the optimal operating parameters. The model predicts the maximum cell density the CBR can sustain is 5.5 × 107  cells/mL in a single 11-mL conical chamber with oxygen being the limiting factor. Experimental results expanding CTLs in the CBR are in 95% agreement with the kinetic model. The prototype CBR described in this report can be used to develop a CBR for use in cancer immunotherapy.

Mitochondrial Impairment: A Link for Inflammatory Responses Activation in the Cardiorenal Syndrome Type 4

Cardiorenal syndrome type 4 (CRS type 4) occurs when chronic kidney disease (CKD) leads to cardiovascular damage, resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates. Mitochondria, vital organelles responsible for essential cellular functions, can become dysfunctional in CKD. This dysfunction can trigger inflammatory responses in distant organs by releasing Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). These DAMPs are recognized by immune receptors within cells, including Toll-like receptors (TLR) like TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9, the nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-containing family pyrin domain-containing-3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, and the cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-adenosine monophosphate (AMP) synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway. Activation of these immune receptors leads to the increased expression of cytokines and chemokines. Excessive chemokine stimulation results in the recruitment of inflammatory cells into tissues, causing chronic damage. Experimental studies have demonstrated that chemokines are upregulated in the heart during CKD, contributing to CRS type 4. Conversely, chemokine inhibitors have been shown to reduce chronic inflammation and prevent cardiorenal impairment. However, the molecular connection between mitochondrial DAMPs and inflammatory pathways responsible for chemokine overactivation in CRS type 4 has not been explored. In this review, we delve into mechanistic insights and discuss how various mitochondrial DAMPs released by the kidney during CKD can activate TLRs, NLRP3, and cGAS-STING immune pathways in the heart. This activation leads to the upregulation of chemokines, ultimately culminating in the establishment of CRS type 4. Furthermore, we propose using chemokine inhibitors as potential strategies for preventing CRS type 4.

Early detection and metabolic pathway identification of T cell activation by in-process intracellular mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND AIMS

In-process monitoring and control of biomanufacturing workflows remains a significant challenge in the development, production, and application of cell therapies. New process analytical technologies must be developed to identify and control the critical process parameters that govern ex vivo cell growth and differentiation to ensure consistent and predictable safety, efficacy, and potency of clinical products.

METHODS

This study demonstrates a new platform for at-line intracellular analysis of T-cells. Untargeted mass spectrometry analyses via the platform are correlated to conventional methods of T-cell assessment.

RESULTS

Spectral markers and metabolic pathways correlated with T-cell activation and differentiation are detected at early time points via rapid, label-free metabolic measurements from a minimal number of cells as enabled by the platform. This is achieved while reducing the analytical time and resources as compared to conventional methods of T-cell assessment.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to opportunities for fundamental insight into the dynamics of T-cell processes, this work highlights the potential of in-process monitoring and dynamic feedback control strategies via metabolic modulation to drive T-cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation throughout biomanufacturing.

Cholesterol metabolism in T-cell aging: Accomplices or victims

Aging has a significant impact on the function and metabolism of T cells. Cholesterol, the most important sterol in mammals, is known as the "gold of the body" because it maintains membrane fluidity, rigidity, and signal transduction while also serving as a precursor of oxysterols, bile acids, and steroid hormones. Cholesterol homeostasis is primarily controlled by uptake, biosynthesis, efflux, and regulatory mechanisms. Previous studies have suggested that there are reciprocal interactions between cholesterol metabolism and T lymphocytes. Here, we will summarize the most recent advances in the effects of cholesterol and its derivatives on T-cell aging. We will furthermore discuss interventions that might be used to help older individuals with immune deficiencies or diminishing immune competence.

Transcriptional expression, prognostic value and immune infiltration of SFRP family in colorectal cancer: a study based on comprehensive bioinformatics and in vitro analyses

Background

Secreted frizzled-related protein (SFRP) is a crucial regulator of Wnt signaling, involved in multiple biological processes including cell proliferation and metastasis. Despite the accumulation of evidence that indicated that SFRPs are differentially expressed and play a key role in various malignancies, the function of different SFRPs in colorectal cancer (CRC) remains insufficiently studied.

Methods

Multicenter databases, including GEPIA, cBioPortal, UALCAN, Pathway Commons, STRING, TIMER, CCLE, and LinkedOmics, comprehensively analyzed differential expression, prognostic value, genetic alterations, signaling pathways, immune cell infiltration, and associated genes of the SFRP family in CRC patients. Colony formation, wound healing, and transwell assays were performed to further validate in vitro.

Results

SFRP family members were differentially expressed in CRC, with each member showing varying degrees of genetic alterations. Except for SFRP5, the remaining members show a significant correlation with immune cells. Interestingly, only SFRP2 significantly correlated with CRC prognosis and stage. Additionally, SFRP2 participated in a number of critical biological processes, including metastasis and cell proliferation. Moreover, cell function assays suggested the elimination of SFRP2 inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of HCT116 cells.

Conclusions

The differential expression of SFRP2 is closely associated with the prognosis of CRC patients. In addition, abnormal expression of SFRP2 has a significant impact on the progression of CRC, including proliferation, migration, and invasion. SFRP2 may become a novel prognostic factor for CRC.

Core fucosylation and its roles in gastrointestinal glycoimmunology

Glycosylation is a common post-translational modification in eukaryotic cells. It is involved in the production of many biologically active glycoproteins and the regulation of protein structure and function. Core fucosylation plays a vital role in the immune response. Most immune system molecules are core fucosylated glycoproteins such as complements, cluster differentiation antigens, immunoglobulins, cytokines, major histocompatibility complex molecules, adhesion molecules, and immune molecule synthesis-related transcription factors. These core fucosylated glycoproteins play important roles in antigen recognition and clearance, cell adhesion, lymphocyte activation, apoptosis, signal transduction, and endocytosis. Core fucosylation is dominated by fucosyltransferase 8 (Fut8), which catalyzes the addition of α-1,6-fucose to the innermost GlcNAc residue of N-glycans. Fut8 is involved in humoral, cellular, and mucosal immunity. Tumor immunology is associated with aberrant core fucosylation. Here, we summarize the roles and potential modulatory mechanisms of Fut8 in various immune processes of the gastrointestinal system.

Jing-Fang powder ethyl acetate extracts attenuate atopic dermatitis by modulating T-cell activity

Jing-Fang powder ethyl acetate extract (JFEE) and its isolated C (JFEE-C) possess favorable anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties; however, their inhibitory effects on T cell activity remain unknown. In vitro, Jurkat T cells and primary mouse CD4⁺ T cells were used to explore the regulatory effects of JFEE and JFEE-C as well as their potential mechanisms on activated T cells. Furthermore, T cell-mediated atopic dermatitis (AD) mouse model was established to confirm these inhibitory effects in vivo. The results showed that JFEE and JFEE-C inhibited T cell activation by suppressing the production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) without showing cytotoxicity. Flow cytometry showed the inhibitory effects of JFEE and JFEE-C on the activation-induced proliferation and apoptosis of T cells. Pretreatment with JFEE and JFEE-C also decreased the expression levels of several surface molecules, including CD69, CD25, and CD40L. Moreover, it was confirmed that JFEE and JFEE-C inhibited T cell activation by downregulating the TGF-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1)/nuclear kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. The combination of these extracts with C25-140 intensified the inhibitory effects on IL-2 production and p65 phosphorylation. The oral administration of JFEE and JFEE-C notably weakened AD manifestations, including the infiltration of mast cells and CD4⁺ cells, epidermis and dermis thicknesses, serum levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE) and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), and gene expression levels of T helper (Th) cells-related cytokines in vivo. The underlying mechanisms of the inhibitory effects of JFEE and JFEE-C on AD were related to attenuating T cell activity through NF-κB/MAPK pathways. In conclusion, this study suggested that JFEE and JFEE-C exhibited anti-atopic efficacy by attenuating T cell activity and might possess a curative potential for T cell-mediated diseases.

Interactions of IDO and the Kynurenine Pathway with Cell Transduction Systems and Metabolism at the Inflammation-Cancer Interface

The mechanisms underlying a relationship between inflammation and cancer are unclear, but much emphasis has been placed on the role of tryptophan metabolism to kynurenine and downstream metabolites, as these make a substantial contribution to the regulation of immune tolerance and susceptibility to cancer. The proposed link is supported by the induction of tryptophan metabolism by indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) or tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), in response to injury, infection or stress. This review will summarize the kynurenine pathway and will then focus on the bi-directional interactions with other transduction pathways and cancer-related factors. The kynurenine pathway can interact with and modify activity in many other transduction systems, potentially generating an extended web of effects other than the direct effects of kynurenine and its metabolites. Conversely, the pharmacological targeting of those other systems could greatly enhance the efficacy of changes in the kynurenine pathway. Indeed, manipulating those interacting pathways could affect inflammatory status and tumor development indirectly via the kynurenine pathway, while pharmacological modulation of the kynurenine pathway could indirectly influence anti-cancer protection. While current efforts are progressing to account for the failure of selective IDO1 inhibitors to inhibit tumor growth and to devise means of circumventing the issue, it is clear that there are wider factors involving the relationship between kynurenines and cancer that merit detailed consideration as alternative drug targets.

Hydroxytyrosol and Arginine as Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory and Immunostimulant Dietary Supplements for COVID-19 and Long COVID

Phytochemicals from plant extracts are becoming increasingly popular in the world of food science and technology because they have positive effects on human health. In particular, several bioactive foods and dietary supplements are being investigated as potential treatments for chronic COVID. Hydroxytyrosol (HXT) is a natural antioxidant, found in olive oil, with antioxidant anti-inflammatory properties that has been consumed by humans for centuries without reported adverse effects. Its use was approved by the European Food Safety Authority as a protective agent for the cardiovascular system. Similarly, arginine is a natural amino acid with anti-inflammatory properties that can modulate the activity of immune cells, reducing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α. The properties of both substances may be particularly beneficial in the context of COVID-19 and long COVID, which are characterised by inflammation and oxidative stress. While l-arginine promotes the formation of ^•NO, HXT prevents oxidative stress and inflammation in infected cells. This combination could prevent the formation of harmful peroxynitrite, a potent pro-inflammatory substance implicated in pneumonia and COVID-19-associated organ dysfunction, as well as reduce inflammation, improve immune function, protect against free radical damage and prevent blood vessel injury. Further research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits of HXT and arginine in the context of COVID-19.

Measurement of lipid droplets in peripheral immune cells shows an immunomodulatory effect on monocyte polarization in experimental dyslipidaemia

Intracellular lipid droplet (LD) generation is the primary site of energy storage, which is necessary for physiological homeostasis but is related to pathological metabolic disorders. Lipid metabolism is critical for maintaining innate and adaptive immunity; however, it is mainly undefined in peripheral immune cells. Flow cytometry-based immune profiling in healthy peripheral blood cells showed significant original generation of LDs in dendritic cells (DCs, CD3^-CD19^-CD56^-CD11⁺), monocytes (CD3^-CD19^-CD56^-CD14⁺), natural killer cells (NK, CD3^-CD19^-CD56⁺), and B cells (CD3^-CD19⁺). CD36, a common scavenger receptor of lipids, was also highly expressed in LD-accumulated DCs and monocytes. Following short-term treatment with oxidized LDL (oxLDL) in an experimental ex vivo model, CD14⁺ monocytes showed an effective increase in LD generation, but there were no alterations in the immune cell populations. Furthermore, oxLDL-treated CD14⁺ monocytes displayed CD36 expression. However, oxLDL-primed CD14⁺ monocytes showed a blockade in the uptake of extra oxLDL, even while expressing increased CD36, indicating a defect in lipid clearance. Exogenous treatment with oxLDL caused monocyte type 1 polarization accompanied by increased LD accumulation and CD36 expression. This study describes a method to monitor LD generation and CD36 expression in peripheral immune cells and identified an immunomodulatory effect of oxLDL on monocytes by tilting them towards type 1 polarization.

2-DG Re-Normalized IFN-γ Production in T Cells Excluding TEMRA Cells from Patients with Aplastic Anemia

Aplastic anemia (AA) is a T cell immune mediated autoimmune disease in which cytokines, particularly IFN-γ are pathogenesis factors. Glucose metabolism is closely related to effector functions of activated T cells, such as IFN-γ production. The characteristics of glucose metabolism and whether interfering with glucose metabolism could affect T cells produce IFN-γ ability in AA patients remains unknown. In this study, we examined the characteristics of glucose metabolism in T cells from AA patients and the effects of the glucose metabolism inhibitor 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) on the ability of T cell production IFN-γ. Our data demonstrated abnormal glucose metabolism in stimulated T cells from AA patients, mainly reflected by increased glucose uptake and lactate secretion. In addition, EM and T_EMRA cells exhibit higher glucose uptake in patients with AA compared with healthy individuals. Moreover, the frequency of IFN-γ⁺ was reduced by 2-DG in T cell from AA patients. Unexpectedly, 2-DG re-normalized the frequency of IFN-γ⁺ in other T cell subsets, except for in the T_EMRA. In conclusion, our study reveals for the first time the existence of enhanced aerobic glycolysis in T cells from AA patients, and different T cell subsets exhibit different extent glucose uptake requirements. Aerobic glycolysis regulation may be a potential therapeutic strategy for aberrant T cell immunity. Moreover, T_EMRA may have specific metabolic abnormalities, which should receive more attention in future targeted immune metabolism research.

Evaluation of the relationship between mesenchymal stem cells and immune system in vitro conditions

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), are a novel therapeutic option as the most common cell source, play an important role in the immunomodulation. In this study, it was aimed to determine the effect of MSCs on cytokines secreted by the immune system cells.

METHODS

Intracellular cytokine levels (Interleukin-4 (IL-4), Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and Interleukin-17 (IL-17)) detected by flow cytometry before and after co-culture between peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and MCSs. At the same time, supernatant cytokine levels were measured using the ELISA.

RESULTS

In our study, MSCs were isolated from cord blood (CB) and Wharton's Jelly (WJ), and their surface markers (CD44 (100%), CD73 (99.6%), CD90 (100%), CD105 (88%)) shown by flow cytometry method. Both CB-MSCs and WJ-MSCs were used in co-culture MSC/PBMC ratios of 1/5 and 1/10, incubation times of 24 h and 72 h. In the present study, when we compared co-cultures of CB-MSC or WJ-MSC with PBMCs, intracellular levels of cytokines IFN-γ, IL-17 (pro-inflamatory) and IL-4 (anti-inflamatory) were increased, and supernatant levels were decreased significantly (p < 0.05). The level of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) (anti-inflamatory) was significantly decreased for both CB-MSC and WJ-MSC in supernatant (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

It was investigated pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects of CB-MSCs and WJ-MSCs on PBMCs with the obtained results. According to the results, MSCs demonstrated different immunologic effects after the incubation time and ratios. For further studies, it should be known between interaction of MSCs and immune system.

Pretreatment Depressive Status Associated with Poor Nutrition and Prognosis in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy

The prevalence of pretreatment depression in breast cancer patients and its impact on nutrition and prognosis during neoadjuvant chemotherapy remain unknown. One hundred twenty-one patients with previously untreated breast cancer undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) were enrolled. Patients completed the Self-rating Depressive symptoms Scale (SDS) before treatment and were divided into two groups (non-depressive group and depressive group). The nutrition risk screening-2002 (NRS-2002), and nutritional and prognostic indicators, including neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and prognostic nutritional index (PNI), were collected at baseline (pretreatment) and post-treatment. One- and two-year progression-free survival (PFS) in both groups were also calculated. We found that 38.84% patients experienced pretreatment depressive symptoms. Patients in the depressive group had higher nutritional risk and lower body mass index, potassium, sodium, total cholesterol, total protein, and fasting blood glucose levels than those in pretreatment non-depressive group after NAC (all p < 0.05). And higher NLR (p = 0.039) and lower PNI level (p = 0.0021) after NAC were found in patients with pretreatment depressive status. Multivariable Cox analysis showed pretreatment depressive status (HR: 1.893; 95% CI: 1.047-3.426; p = 0.034) were a significant predictor of PFS. This study provides evidence for early identification of pretreatment depression in patients receiving NAC, which would certainly favor nutrition and survival outcome.

Targeting of chimeric antigen receptor T cell metabolism to improve therapeutic outcomes

Genetically engineered chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells can cure patients with cancers that are refractory to standard therapeutic approaches. To date, adoptive cell therapies have been less effective against solid tumors, largely due to impaired homing and function of immune cells within the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Cellular metabolism plays a key role in T cell function and survival and is amenable to manipulation. This manuscript provides an overview of known aspects of CAR T metabolism and describes potential approaches to manipulate metabolic features of CAR T to yield better anti-tumor responses. Distinct T cell phenotypes that are linked to cellular metabolism profiles are associated with improved anti-tumor responses. Several steps within the CAR T manufacture process are amenable to interventions that can generate and maintain favorable intracellular metabolism phenotypes. For example, co-stimulatory signaling is executed through metabolic rewiring. Use of metabolic regulators during CAR T expansion or systemically in the patient following adoptive transfer are described as potential approaches to generate and maintain metabolic states that can confer improved in vivo T cell function and persistence. Cytokine and nutrient selection during the expansion process can be tailored to yield CAR T products with more favorable metabolic features. In summary, improved understanding of CAR T cellular metabolism and its manipulations have the potential to guide the development of more effective adoptive cell therapies.

Assessment of adaptive immune responses of dairy cows with Burkholderia contaminans-induced mastitis

Burkholderia contaminans, an emerging pathogen related to cystic fibrosis, is known to cause potentially fatal infections in humans and ruminants, especially in immunocompromised individuals. However, the immune responses in cows following its infection have not been fully elucidated. In this study, T- and B-lymphocytes-mediated immune responses were evaluated in 15 B. contaminans-induced mastitis cows and 15 healthy cows with multi-parameter flow cytometry. The results showed that infection with B. contaminans was associated with a significant decrease in the number and percentage of B lymphocytes but with a significant increase in the proportion of IgG⁺CD27⁺ B lymphocytes. This indicated that humoral immune response may not be adequate to fight intracellular infection, which could contribute to the persistent bacterial infection. In addition, B. contaminans infection induced significant increase of γδ T cells and double positive (DP) CD4⁺CD8⁺ T cells but not CD4⁺ or CD8⁺ (single positive) T cells in blood. Phenotypic analysis showed that the percentages of activated WC1⁺ γδ T cells in peripheral blood were increased in the B. contaminans infected cows. Interestingly, intracellular cytokine staining showed that cattle naturally infected with B. contaminans exhibited multifunctional TNF-α⁺IFN-γ⁺IL-2⁺ B. contaminans-specific DP T cells. Our results, for the first time, revealed a potential role of IgG⁺CD27⁺ B cells, CD4⁺CD8⁺ T cells and WC1⁺ γδ T cells in the defense of B. contaminans-induced mastitis in cows.

Actin depolymerizing factor-based nanomaterials: A novel strategy to enhance E. mitis-specific immunity

The epidemic of avian coccidiosis seriously threatens the animals' welfare and the economic gains of the poultry industry. Widespread in avian coccidiosis, Eimeria mitis (E. mitis) could obviously impair the production performance of the infected chickens. So far, few effective vaccines targeting E. mitis have been reported, and the nanovaccines composed of nanospheres captured our particular attention. At the present study, we construct two kinds of nanospheres carrying the recombinant E. mitis actin depolymerizing factor (rEmADF), then the characterization was then analyzed. After safety evaluation, the protective efficacy of rEmADF along with its nanospheres were investigated in chickens. The promoted secretions of antibodies and cytokines, as well as the enhanced percentages of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells were evaluated by the ELISA and flow cytometry assay. In addition, the absolute quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assay implied that vaccinations with rEmADF-entrapped nanospheres could significantly reduce the replications of E. mitis in feces. Compared with the rEmADF-loaded chitosan (EmADF-CS) nanospheres, the PLGA nanospheres carrying rEmADF (EmADF-PLGA nanosphers) were more effective in up-regulating weight efficiency of animals and generated equally ability in controlling E. mitis burdens in feces, suggesting the PLGA and CS nanospheres loaded with rEmADF were the satisfactory nanovaccines for E. mitis defense. Collectively, nanomaterials may be an effective antigen delivery system that could help recombinant E. mitis actin depolymerizing factor to enhance immunoprotections in chicken against the infections of E. mitis.

Proportion of Concentrate in the Diet of Early Lactation Dairy Cows Has Contrasting Effects on Circulating Leukocyte Global Transcriptomic Profiles, Health and Fertility According to Parity

The functionality of circulating leukocytes in dairy cows is suppressed after calving, with negative energy balance as a risk factor. Leukocyte transcriptomic profiles were compared separately in 44 multiparous (MP) and 18 primiparous (PP) Holstein-Friesian cows receiving diets differing in concentrate proportion to test whether immune dysfunction could be mitigated by appropriate nutrition. After calving, cows were offered either (1) low concentrate (LC); (2) medium concentrate (MC) or (3) high concentrate (HC) diets with proportions of concentrate to grass silage of 30%:70%, 50%:50% and 70%:30%, respectively. Cow phenotype data collected included circulating metabolites, milk yield and health and fertility records. RNA sequencing of circulating leukocytes at 14 days in milk was performed. The HC diet improved energy balance in both age groups. There were more differentially expressed genes in PP than MP cows (460 vs. 173, HC vs. LC comparison) with few overlaps. The MP cows on the LC diet showed upregulation of the complement and coagulation cascade and innate immune defence mechanisms against pathogens and had a trend of more cases of mastitis and poorer fertility. In contrast, the PP cows on the HC diet showed greater immune responses based on both gene expression and phenotypic data and longer interval of calving to conception. The leukocytes of MP and PP cows therefore responded differentially to the diets between age, nutrient supply and immunity affecting their health and subsequent fertility.

Metabolic Regulation of CD8+ T Cells: From Mechanism to Therapy

Significance: Cancer immunotherapy has yielded striking antitumor effects in many cancers, yet the proportion of benefited patients is still limited. As key mediators of tumor suppression, CD8⁺ T cells are crucial for cancer immunotherapy. It has been widely appreciated that the modulation of CD8⁺ T cell immunity could be an effective way to further improve the therapeutic benefit of immunotherapy. Recent Advances: Emerging evidence has underlined a close link between metabolism and immune functions, providing a metabolism-immune axis that is increasingly investigated for understanding CD8⁺ T cell regulation. On the other hand, growing findings have reported that tumors adopt multiple approaches to induce metabolic reprogramming of CD8⁺ T cells, leading to compromised immunotherapy. Critical Issues: CD8⁺ T cell metabolism in the tumor microenvironment (TME) is often adapted to diminish antitumor immune responses and thereby evade from immune surveillance. A better understanding of metabolic regulation of CD8⁺ T cells in the TME is believed to hold promise for opening a new therapeutic window to further improve the benefit of immunotherapy. We herein review the mechanistic understanding of how CD8⁺ T cell metabolism is reprogrammed in the TME, mainly focusing on the impact of nutrient availability and bioactive molecules secreted by surrounding cells. Future Directions: Future research should pay attention to tumor heterogeneity in the metabolic microenvironment and associated immune responses. It is also important to include the trending opinion of "precision medicine" in cancer immunotherapies to tailor metabolic interventions for individual patients in combination with immunotherapy treatments. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 1234-1253.

Metabolic modulation of immune checkpoints and novel therapeutic strategies in cancer

Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) or programmed death-1 (PD-1)/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)-based immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have led to significant improvements in the overall survival of patients with certain cancers and are expected to benefit patients by achieving complete, long-lasting remissions and cure. However, some patients who receive ICIs either fail treatment or eventually develop immunotherapy resistance. The existence of such patients necessitates a deeper understanding of cancer progression, specifically nutrient regulation in the tumor microenvironment (TME), which includes both metabolic cross-talk between metabolites and tumor cells, and intracellular metabolism in immune and cancer cells. Here we review the features and behaviors of the TME and discuss the recently identified major immune checkpoints. We comprehensively and systematically summarize the metabolic modulation of tumor immunity and immune checkpoints in the TME, including glycolysis, amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, and other metabolic pathways, and further discuss the potential metabolism-based therapeutic strategies tested in preclinical and clinical settings. These findings will help to determine the existence of a link or crosstalk between tumor metabolism and immunotherapy, which will provide an important insight into cancer treatment and cancer research.

Enforcing GLUT3 expression in CD8+ T cells improves fitness and tumor control by promoting glucose uptake and energy storage

Despite the tremendous success of adoptive T-cell therapies (ACT) in fighting certain hematologic malignancies, not all patients respond, a proportion experience relapse, and effective ACT of most solid tumors remains elusive. In order to improve responses to ACT suppressive barriers in the solid tumor microenvironment (TME) including insufficient nutrient availability must be overcome. Here we explored how enforced expression of the high-affinity glucose transporter GLUT3 impacted tumor-directed T cells. Overexpression of GLUT3 in primary murine CD8+ T cells enhanced glucose uptake and increased glycogen and fatty acid storage, and was associated with increased mitochondrial fitness, reduced ROS levels, higher abundance of the anti-apoptotic protein Mcl-1, and better resistance to stress. Importantly, GLUT3-OT1 T cells conferred superior control of B16-OVA melanoma tumors and, in this same model, significantly improved survival. Moreover, a proportion of treated mice were cured and protected from re-challenge, indicative of long-term T cell persistence and memory formation. Enforcing expression of GLUT3 is thus a promising strategy to improve metabolic fitness and sustaining CD8+ T cell effector function in the context of ACT.

P2 Receptors: Novel Disease Markers and Metabolic Checkpoints in Immune Cells

Extracellular ATP (eATP) and P2 receptors are novel emerging regulators of T-lymphocyte responses. Cellular ATP is released via multiple pathways and accumulates at sites of tissue damage and inflammation. P2 receptor expression and function are affected by numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with diverse disease conditions. Stimulation by released nucleotides (purinergic signalling) modulates several T-lymphocyte functions, among which energy metabolism. Energy metabolism, whether oxidative or glycolytic, in turn deeply affects T-cell activation, differentiation and effector responses. Specific P2R subtypes, among which the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R), are either up- or down-regulated during T-cell activation and differentiation; thus, they can be considered indexes of activation/quiescence, reporters of T-cell metabolic status and, in principle, markers of immune-mediated disease conditions.

Iguratimod Restrains Circulating Follicular Helper T Cell Function by Inhibiting Glucose Metabolism via Hif1α-HK2 Axis in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Iguratimod (IGU) is a novel disease modified anti-rheumatic drug, which has been found to act directly on B cells for inhibiting the production of antibodies in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells, a key T cell subsets in supporting B cell differentiation and antibody production, have been shown to play critical roles in RA. However, whether IGU can inhibit RA Tfh cells which further restrains B cell function remains unclear. Here, we aimed to explore the roles of IGU in regulating RA circulating Tfh (cTfh) cell function and investigate the potential mechanism associated with cell glucose metabolism. In our study, we found that IGU could act on RA-CD4⁺ T cells to reduce T cell-dependent antibody production. IGU decreased the percentage of RA cTfh cells and the expression of Tfh cell-related molecules and cytokines which were involved in B cell functions. Importantly, our data showed that IGU significantly restrained the cTfh cell function by inhibiting glucose metabolism, which relied on Hif1α-HK2 axis. In summary, we clarified a new target and mechanism of IGU by restraining RA cTfh cell function via inhibiting Hif1α-HK2-glucose metabolism axis. Our study demonstrates the potential application of IGU in the treatment of diseases related to abnormal metabolism and function of Tfh cells.