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Meurens F, Carlin F, Federighi M, Filippitzi ME, Fournier M, Fravalo P, Ganière JP, Grisot L, Guillier L, Hilaire D, Kooh P, Le Bouquin-Leneveu S, Le Maréchal C, Mazuet C, Morvan H, Petit K, Vaillancourt JP, Woudstra C. Clostridium botulinum type C, D, C/D, and D/C: An update. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1099184. [PMID: 36687640 PMCID: PMC9849819 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1099184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum is the main causative agent of botulism, a neurological disease encountered in humans as well as animals. Nine types of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) have been described so far. Amongst these "toxinotypes," the A, the B and E are the most frequently encountered in humans while the C, D, C/D and D/C are mostly affecting domestic and wild birds as well as cattle. In France for instance, many cases and outbreaks are reported in these animal species every year. However, underestimation is very likely at least for avifauna species where the detection of dead animals can be challenging. Knowledge about BoNTs C, D, C/D, and D/C and the diseases they cause in animals and humans is still scarce and unclear. Specifically, the potential role of animal botulism outbreaks in cattle and poultry as a source of human illness needs to be further assessed. In this narrative review, we present the current knowledge about toxinotypes C, D, C/D, and D/C in cattle and poultry with, amongst various other aspects, their epidemiological cycles. We also discuss the zoonotic potential of these toxinotypes and some possible ways of risk mitigation. An adapted and effective management of botulism outbreaks in livestock also requires a better understanding of these less common and known toxinotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Meurens
- INRAE, Oniris, BIOEPAR, Nantes, France,Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada,*Correspondence: François Meurens,
| | | | | | - Maria-Eleni Filippitzi
- Laboratory of Animal Health Economics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Matthieu Fournier
- Univ Rouen Normandie, Univ Caen Normandie, CNRS, M2C, UMR 6143, Rouen, France
| | - Philippe Fravalo
- Chaire Agroalimentaire du Cnam, Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, EPN7, Ploufragan, France
| | | | | | | | | | - Pauline Kooh
- Risk Assessment Department, ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sophie Le Bouquin-Leneveu
- Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pig Products Unit, ANSES, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health Safety, Ploufragan, France
| | - Caroline Le Maréchal
- Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pig Products Unit, ANSES, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health Safety, Ploufragan, France
| | - Christelle Mazuet
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNR Bactéries anaérobies et Botulisme, Paris, France
| | | | - Karine Petit
- Risk Assessment Department, ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Vaillancourt
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Cédric Woudstra
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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Espelund M, Klaveness D. Botulism outbreaks in natural environments - an update. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:287. [PMID: 24966853 PMCID: PMC4052663 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum comprises a diverse group of botulinum toxin-producing anaerobic rod-shaped spore-forming bacteria that are ubiquitously distributed in soils and aquatic sediments. Decomposition of plants, algae, and animals creates anaerobic environments that facilitate growth of C. botulinum, which may then enter into food webs leading to intoxication of animals. Via saprophytic utilization of nutrients, the bacteria rapidly sporulate, creating a reservoir of highly robust spores. In the present review, we focus on the occurrence of C. botulinum in non-clinical environments, and examine factors influencing growth and environmental factors associated with botulism outbreaks. We also outline cases involving specific environments and their biota. In wetlands, it has been found that some C. botulinum strains can associate with toxin-unaffected organisms–-including algae, plants, and invertebrates–-in which the bacteria appear to germinate and stay in the vegetative form for longer periods of time. We suggest the need for future investigations to resolve issues related to the environments in which C. botulinum spores may accumulate and germinate, and where the vegetative forms may multiply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Espelund
- Protection and Societal Security Division, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment Kjeller, Norway
| | - Dag Klaveness
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Oslo Oslo, Norway
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Multi-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis for Clostridium botulinum type B isolates in Japan: comparison with other isolates and genotyping methods. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2013; 16:298-304. [PMID: 23499776 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2013.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Revised: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum produces botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) and causes botulism in humans and animals. Recently, 15-loci multi-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) for C. botulinum was developed for high-resolution and inter-lab comparative genotyping. This study examines the relation between MLVA and other genotyping methods such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), BoNT/B subtyping and bont/b gene location to evaluate MLVA as a method applicable to the genetic markers for C. botulinum type B. Japanese isolates were genotyped using MLVA and were compared with strains from other sources reported previously. Results show that the discriminatory power of MLVA was comparable to that of PFGE and higher than that of MLST. The topology of the minimum spanning tree (MST) constructed using MLVA data was very consistent with the phylogenetic classifications of PFGE and MLST. The MST topology also represented genetic diversity between the strains possessing bont/b gene on chromosomes and plasmids. Some Japanese isolates including those associated with infant botulism were inferred to be related to isolates of Europe origin from MLVA genotyping results. The MLVA scheme used for this study is apparently useful not only for high-resolution molecular typing, but also for phylogenetic characterization of C. botulinum type B.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To summarize the worldwide occurrence of reported infant (intestinal toxemia) botulism cases since first recognition of the disease in 1976. PATIENTS AND METHODS We collected information on infant botulism cases by active and passive surveillance, by provision of therapeutic Human Botulism Immune Globulin to suspected cases, and by searching the medical literature. We defined a case as laboratory-confirmed botulism that occurred in an infant <or=12 months of age that was not caused by the ingestion of botulinum toxin in food. RESULTS Twenty-six countries representing 5 continents reported the occurrence of at least 1 case of infant botulism among their residents. The United States, Argentina, Australia, Canada, Italy, and Japan, in this order, reported the largest number of cases. A history of honey exposure was significantly more common among case subjects hospitalized outside of the United States than among those who were recently hospitalized in California. CONCLUSIONS Most countries have not yet reported cases of infant botulism. This limited reporting of the disease to date contrasts with the known global occurrence of Clostridium botulinum spores in soils and dust and suggests that infant botulism may be under-recognized, underreported, or both. When bulbar palsies, hypotonia, and weakness are present, physicians should consider the possibility of infant botulism even if the patient has not been fed honey. Publication of additional case reports and surveillance summaries will enhance understanding of the occurrence and extent of this under-recognized disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Koepke
- California Department of Public Health, 850 Marina Bay Pkwy, Room E-361, Richmond, CA 94804, USA
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Lúquez C, Bianco MI, de Jong LIT, Sagua MD, Arenas GN, Ciccarelli AS, Fernández RA. Distribution of botulinum toxin-producing clostridia in soils of Argentina. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71:4137-9. [PMID: 16000834 PMCID: PMC1168975 DOI: 10.1128/aem.71.7.4137-4139.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the presence of botulinum toxin-producing clostridia in 2,009 soil samples from five geographical regions of Argentina. The prevalence was 23.5%, and the distribution was not homogeneous among the regions. We observed a great multiplicity of serological types and a higher prevalence in nonvirgin soils than in virgin soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Lúquez
- Area Microbiología, Departamento de Patología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Centro Universitario, Parque General San Martín S/N, 5500, Mendoza, Argentina
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Karasawa T, Wang X, Maegawa T, Nakamura S, Hang'ombe BM, Isogai E. Demonstration of botulinum toxins of types B and D in soil samples from Zambia. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2000; 94:409-11. [PMID: 10945053 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.2000.11813558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T Karasawa
- Department of Bacteriology, School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Japan
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Kakinuma H, Maruyama H, Takahashi H, Yamakawa K, Nakamura S. The first case of type B infant botulism in Japan. ACTA PAEDIATRICA JAPONICA : OVERSEAS EDITION 1996; 38:541-3. [PMID: 8942019 DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-200x.1996.tb03542.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A six-month-old girl with a 5 consecutive day history of constipation and poor feeding developed generalized weakness, poor head control, difficulties in sucking and swallowing, and cranial nerve dysfunction within a few days. These characteristic manifestations and clinical course prompted examination of the possibility of infant botulism, although no history of eating honey was obtained. Mouse bioassay performed with enema effluent demonstrated type B botulinum toxin. Culture of the effluent was positive for Clostridium botulinum type B. This is the first case of type B infant botulism in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Kakinuma
- Department of Pediatrics, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa, Japan
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Nakano H, Yoshikuni Y, Hashimoto H, Sakaguchi G. Detection of Clostridium botulinum in natural sweetening. Int J Food Microbiol 1992; 16:117-21. [PMID: 1445754 DOI: 10.1016/0168-1605(92)90004-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Various sugar products were examined for contamination with C. botulinum spores. Type A, B and C spores were detected in three of 56 samples of sugar for apiculture, which may attest the significance of bee-feed as a source of contamination of honey. The heavy contamination of honey with C. botulinum spores sometimes encountered, however, can not be explained unless some other factors, e.g., that allowing germination and multiplication of the spores somewhere during honey production, are found. Type A spores were detected in some samples of raw sugar and molasses and also in two of 41 samples of brown sugar lump, but not in refined sugar or other various samples taken at a sugar factory or in sugar cane left on the field in Okinawa. The fact that some natural sweetenings are contaminated with C. botulinum spores, even in low concentrations, may be food-hygienically important.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Nakano
- Department of Food Microbiology and Hygiene, Hiroshima University, Japan
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Yamakawa K, Nakamura S. Prevalence of Clostridium botulinum type E and coexistence of C. botulinum nonproteolytic type B in the river soil of Japan. Microbiol Immunol 1992; 36:583-91. [PMID: 1522809 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1992.tb02058.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Soil samples from 98 sites in the whole systems of four rivers in Japan were examined for the presence of Clostridium botulinum. Type E organism was prevalently shown throughout the whole river systems including upper part; detection rates of type E toxin in soil culture ranged from 33 to 82%. This type was also detected in soil of adjacent mountainous district. Type B and C toxins were detected at 7% and 9% of the sites examined, respectively. C. botulinum type E and nonproteolytic type B strains were isolated from enrichment cultures of soil samples. These results suggest that the terrestrial origin of type E organism would be considered as one of the reasons for the high incidence of this organism in the sea areas, and prove that C. botulinum nonproteolytic type B exists in the soil of Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Yamakawa
- Department of Bacteriology, School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Ishikawa, Japan
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Yamakawa K, Kamiya S, Yoshimura K, Nakamura S. Clostridium botulinum type C in healthy swine in Japan. Microbiol Immunol 1992; 36:29-34. [PMID: 1584070 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1992.tb01639.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Healthy cattle and swine bred in a district of Japan were examined for the presence of Clostridium botulinum in their liver. Liver specimens were cultivated in chopped meat-glucose medium and the cultures were examined for botulinum toxin. In cattle, none of the cultures of 100 liver specimens yielded the toxin. In swine, however, C1 or C2 toxin was demonstrated in 8 of 100 liver specimens from 36 farms. One of the five farms where the carrier-state swine were present was surveyed for about 2 years to determine whether the carrier-state was transient or resident. C. botulinum type C was found in swine livers and feces, and environmental specimens at extremely high rates during the surveillances, with 76% of specimens yielding botulinum toxin following the culture. These data suggest that it is not uncommon for healthy swine to carry C. botulinum type C in the liver and that there is a close relationship between C. botulinum carrier-state in swine and the presence of this organism in their raising environments. In 20 cattle and 20 swine suffering from parturient paresis of unknown etiology no evidence for involvement of C. botulinum type C was obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Yamakawa
- Department of Bacteriology, School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Ishikawa, Japan
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Yamakawa K, Kamiya S, Yoshimura K, Nakamura S, Ezaki T. Clostridium botulinum in the soil of Kenya. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1990; 84:201-3. [PMID: 2200362 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1990.11812457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K Yamakawa
- Department of Bacteriology, School of Medicine, Kanazawa University, Ishikawa, Japan
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Venkateswaran K, Kiiyukia C, Takaki M, Nakano H, Matsuda H, Kawakami H, Hashimoto H. Characterization of toxigenic vibrios isolated from the freshwater environment of Hiroshima, Japan. Appl Environ Microbiol 1989; 55:2613-8. [PMID: 2690736 PMCID: PMC203132 DOI: 10.1128/aem.55.10.2613-2618.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The occurrence and characterization of toxigenic vibrios in surface water and sediment samples of the fresh water environment of the Ohta River were studied. The membrane filter, pad preenrichment technique, followed by the placement of membranes onto thiosulfate citrate-bile salt-sucrose agar, was used for the enumeration of total vibrios. Qualitative examination of pathogenic vibrios was also attempted. In addition, a survey was conducted to determine the incidence of Clostridium botulinum in sediment samples of the Ohta River and the Hiroshima coast. In the identification of 361 strains, 12 species of Vibrio and two species of Listonella were observed. Non-01 Vibrio cholerae was prevalent among the members of the genus Vibrio. Vibrio parahaemolyticus (serotype 04:K34), isolated in fresh water, is significant and suggests that some still unknown conditions promote the survival of these organisms in fresh water. An estimated 132 strains were hemolytic by a simple agar method, and further characterization revealed that 82% of the hemolytic vibrios (107 strains) produced various toxins. About 71% (93 strains) elaborated cytotoxin, 55% (72 strains) produced hemolysin, and 44% (58 strains) responded for both cytotoxin and hemolysin in the crude toxin extracts. All the non-01 V. cholerae showed cytotoxic activity, and the virulent strains of Vibrio fluvialis and Vibrio spp. showed cytotonic responses in RK-13 cells. Of 36 sediment samples tested, 10 harbored C. botulinum spores (28%) and were isolated invariably in all the regions of the Hiroshima coast and in the Ohta River, except the upper region of the Ohta River.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Venkateswaran
- Department of Food Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Applied Biological Science, Hiroshima University, Japan
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