Gastric mucin is expressed in a subset of endocervical tunnel clusters: type A tunnel clusters of gastric phenotype

Cytopathologic features of human papillomavirus–independent, gastric-type endocervical adenocarcinoma

Background

Gastric-type endocervical adenocarcinoma (GEA) is unrelated to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and is clinically aggressive compared with HPV-associated usual-type endocervical adenocarcinoma (UEA). The cytological diagnosis falls short of a definitive diagnosis of GEA and is often categorized as atypical glandular cells (AGCs). To improve cytologic recognition, cytological findings of HPV-independent GEA were analyzed and the results compared with HPV-associated UEA.

Methods

Cervical Papanicolaou (Pap) smears from eight patients with a histopathologic diagnosis of GEA and 12 control cases of UEA were reviewed. All slides were conventionally prepared and/or liquid-based prepared (ThinPrep) and stained following the Pap method. A mucinous background, architectural, nuclear, and cytoplasmic features were analyzed and compared with UEA.

Results

Preoperative cytologic diagnoses of the eight GEA cases were AGCs, favor neoplastic in three cases, adenocarcinoma in situ in one case, and adenocarcinoma in four cases. Cytologically, monolayered honeycomb-like sheets (p = .002) of atypical endocervical cells with vacuolar granular cytoplasm (p = .001) were extensive in GEA, and three-dimensional clusters (p = .010) were extensive in UEA. Although the differences were not statistically significant, background mucin (p = .058), vesicular nuclei (p = .057), and golden-brown intracytoplasmic mucin (p = .089) were also discriminatory findings for GEA versus UEA.

Conclusions

Although GEA is difficult to diagnose on cytologic screening, GEA can be recognized based on cytologic features of monolayered honeycomb sheets of atypical endocervical cells with abundant vacuolar cytoplasm and some golden-brown intracytoplasmic mucin. UEA cases are characterized by three-dimensional clusters.

Navigating through perplex morphologic changes after exogenous hormone usage

Clinical application of exogenous hormone as a method of contraception and/or treatment of various gynecologic disorders is exceedingly common. Unfortunately, the concurrent use of these agents also complicates the interpretation of pathology specimens. Various studies have shown that morphologic changes induced by hormonal therapies are present in both non-neoplastic and neoplastic tissues within the women's reproductive tract. It is important to understand the exogenous hormone induced morphologic changes, as it helps the pathologists make the accurate diagnosis, and in turn, guide clinicians to make optimal clinical decisions. In this review, we summarize the morphologic changes in both neoplastic and non-neoplastic endometrial, cervical, and myometrial surgical specimens after hormonal therapies, particularly after progestin treatment. In the endometrium, particularly in the scenario of progestin-treated atypical endometrial hyperplasia/endometrioid intraepithelial neoplasia (AEH/EIN), there is notoriously poor interobserver agreement and difficulty in assessing for the residual disease. We summarize current literature and propose our recommended approach in assessing these challenging endometrial biopsies, including a diagnostic algorism, the use of PAX-2, PTEN, beta-catenin immunohistochemistry panel, as well as consistency in diagnostic wording of the report. In the cervix, progestin makes dysplastic lesions appear metaplastic, thus high-grade squamous dysplastic lesions may be easily missed. Within the myometrium, lesions such as adenomyosis may show various degree of decidualization, while smooth muscle neoplasms may show apoplectic changes, and stromal lesions including endometrial stromal sarcoma may show more eosinophilic cytoplasm. All such changes may pose more or less diagnostic challenges in our daily practice. However, most are readily recognizable when we understand particular hormone related scenarios.

Molecular characterization of gastric-type endocervical adenocarcinoma using next-generation sequencing

Gastric-type endocervical adenocarcinoma is an uncommon aggressive type of endocervical adenocarcinoma that is not associated with human papillomavirus (HPV). At present, this tumor is classified under the spectrum of mucinous carcinoma of the uterine cervix. The clinical stage of gastric-type endocervical adenocarcinoma at the time of diagnosis is usually more advanced compared to the HPV-associated endocervical adenocarcinoma. Widespread dissemination to unusual sites, such as omentum, peritoneum, and distant organs, can be present. Owing to its rare incidence, diagnostic dilemmas, and aggressive behavior, clinical management can be challenging. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the molecular characteristics of these tumors by using next-generation sequencing (NGS) to assess 161 unique cancer-driver genes for single-nucleotide and copy-number variations, gene fusions, and insertions/deletions within gastric-type endocervical adenocarcinoma tumors. In total, 92 variants were detected across the 14 samples tested (7 variants on average per tumor). TP53 was the most recurrently mutated gene followed by MSH6, CDKN2A/B, POLE, SLX4, ARID1A, STK11, BRCA2, and MSH2. Abnormal p53 expression was observed in nine cases by immunohistochemistry, of which TP53 variants were present in four cases. MDM2 gene amplification in 12q15 (69202190-69233452) locus was seen in two cases that express normal p53 levels by immunohistochemistry. Four cases had STK11 null (frameshift/nonsense) variants, three of which were previously reported in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. Overall, genes that are implicated in DNA damage, repair, cell cycle, Fanconi anemia pathway, and the PI3K-AKT signaling pathways were found to be mutated. Of note, genes known to have acquired and/or inherited variants in endometrial tumors were enriched within our cohort. In conclusion, our study shows the genetic heterogeneity of gastric-type endocervical adenocarcinoma with some potentially actionable molecular alterations, which highlights the importance of further molecular characterization for better identification of this rare entity, and hence better clinical management.

Morphologic Features of Gastric-type Cervical Adenocarcinoma in Small Surgical and Cytology Specimens

Gastric-type cervical adenocarcinoma (GCA) is a human papillomavirus-unassociated, aggressive, chemorefractory tumor. Well-differentiated examples may exhibit bland morphologic appearances, which could potentially lead to misdiagnosis, particularly in limited material. We sought to characterize the morphologic features of GCA in surgical biopsy and cytology specimens. We identified patients with histologic diagnoses of GCA or minimal-deviation adenocarcinoma between 2004 and 2017. Available slides from biopsy, curettage, and cytology specimens were reviewed. Fifty-nine specimens (37 histology, 22 cytology) were reviewed from 23 patients, including histology specimens alone from 6 patients, cytology specimens alone from 4 patients, and both types of specimen from 13 patients. The median patient age was 52 yr (range, 29-83 yr). Biopsies showed well-to-moderately differentiated adenocarcinomas composed of cells with pale or foamy cytoplasm and well-defined cytoplasmic borders. Nuclei exhibited mild-to-moderate pleomorphism with small nucleoli. The diagnosis was challenging in a minority of biopsies in which neoplastic glandular epithelium was scant, fragmented, and/or well differentiated. Cytology slides showed single and crowded clusters of tumor cells with pale, foamy, and/or vacuolated cytoplasm and well-defined cytoplasmic borders. Nuclei were moderately pleomorphic, round to oval with one or more nucleoli. Of 20 submitted biopsies, GCA was suspected by the submitting pathologist in only 5 (25%) cases. Awareness of the morphologic features and use of confirmatory ancillary studies (eg, immunohistochemistry for markers of gastric differentiation and human papillomavirus testing) will allow accurate diagnosis of these aggressive tumors in biopsy and cytology specimens.

Cervical Adenocarcinomas: A Heterogeneous Group of Tumors With Variable Etiologies and Clinical Outcomes

Context.—

Cervical adenocarcinomas are a heterogeneous group of tumors with varying morphologies, etiologies, molecular drivers, and prognoses, comprising approximately 25% of all cervical cancers. Unlike cervical squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinomas are not uniformly caused by high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and, therefore, would not necessarily be prevented by the HPV vaccine.

Objective.—

To provide a review of endocervical adenocarcinoma subtypes and, when appropriate, discuss precursor lesions, etiologies, molecular genetics, and ancillary studies within the context of clinical care. Some historical perspectives will also be provided.

Data Sources.—

Data sources included published peer-reviewed literature and personal experiences of the senior author.

Conclusions.—

Endocervical adenocarcinomas are a histologically diverse group of tumors with various causes and molecular drivers, not all related to HPV infection. Distinguishing them has important implications for treatment and prognosis as well as strategies for prevention.

The spectrum of cervical glandular neoplasia and issues in differential diagnosis

CONTEXT

Premalignant and malignant glandular lesions of the cervix are known to often cause diagnostic problems with a variety of benign (more common) as well as other malignant mimics, the latter setting often being represented by secondary involvement by endometrioid endometrial carcinoma especially in small samplings.

OBJECTIVE

To highlight key histologic features and immunohistochemical markers that may be helpful in the distinction of in situ endocervical carcinoma from benign glandular proliferations, and those that separate different subtypes of invasive endocervical carcinoma, as well as invasive carcinoma from other carcinomas secondarily involving the cervix and nonneoplastic proliferations of the cervix.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical and morphologic features as well as immunohistochemistry results should be used in conjunction in the differential diagnosis of glandular proliferations of the cervix, as correct interpretation has major clinical consequences for the patient in most instances (especially benign versus malignant). Immunohistochemical markers should be used as part of a panel of antibodies, as exceptions may occur to the usual pattern of staining, and if used singly, they may mislead the pathologist to establish a wrong diagnosis.

Premalignant lesions of the lower female genital tract: cervix, vagina and vulva

Premalignant lesions of the lower female genital tract encompassing the cervix, vagina and vulva are variably common and many, but by no means all, are related to infection by human papillomavirus (HPV). In this review, pathological aspects of the various premalignant lesions are discussed, mainly concentrating on new developments. The value of ancillary studies, mainly immunohistochemical, is discussed at the appropriate points. In the cervix, the terminology and morphological features of premalignant glandular lesions is covered, as is the distinction between adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS) and early invasive adenocarcinoma, which may be very problematic. A spectrum of benign, premalignant and malignant cervical glandular lesions exhibiting gastric differentiation is emerging with lobular endocervical glandular hyperplasia (LEGH), including so-called atypical LEGH, representing a possible precursor of non HPV-related cervical adenocarcinomas exhibiting gastric differentiation; these include the cytologically bland adenoma malignum and the morphologically malignant gastric type adenocarcinoma. Stratified mucin producing intraepithelial lesion (SMILE) is a premalignant cervical lesion with morphological overlap between cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and AIS and which is variably regarded as a form of reserve cell dysplasia or stratified AIS. It is now firmly established that there are two distinct types of vulval intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) with a different pathogenesis, molecular events, morphological features and risk of progression to squamous carcinoma. These comprise a more common HPV-related usual type VIN (also referred to as classic, undifferentiated, basaloid, warty, Bowenoid type) and a more uncommon differentiated (simplex) type which is non-HPV related and which is sometimes associated with lichen sclerosus. The former has a relatively low risk of progression to HPV-related vulval squamous carcinoma and the latter a high risk of progression to non-HPV related vulval squamous carcinoma. Various aspects of vulval Paget's disease are also discussed.

New developments in endocervical glandular lesions

McCluggage W G (2012) Histopathology New developments in endocervical glandular lesions There is evidence that the prevalence of premalignant and malignant endocervical glandular lesions is increasing in real as well as in apparent terms. In this review, new developments and selected controversial aspects of endocervical glandular lesions are covered, concentrating mainly on premalignant and malignant lesions. The terminology of premalignant endocervical glandular lesions is discussed with a comparison of the World Health Organization classification and the cervical glandular intraepithelial neoplasia (CGIN) system, which is in widespread use in the United Kingdom. Primary cervical adenocarcinomas comprise a heterogeneous group of different morphological types, and while it is known that the majority of these are associated with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV), it has become clear in recent years that most of the more uncommon morphological types are unassociated with HPV, although they may sometimes be p16-positive. A spectrum of benign, premalignant and malignant cervical glandular lesions exhibiting gastric differentiation is now recognized; these include type A tunnel clusters, typical and atypical lobular endocervical glandular hyperplasia, adenoma malignum and gastric-type adenocarcinoma. The latter is a recently described variant of primary cervical adenocarcinoma which has a different morphological appearance to the usual endocervical type and which is probably associated with different patterns of spread and a worse prognosis. There is accumulating evidence that 'early invasive' cervical adenocarcinomas have an excellent prognosis and are suitable for conservative management. Immunohistochemical markers of value in the distinction between a primary cervical and endometrial adenocarcinoma are discussed. While it is well known that a panel of markers comprising oestrogen receptor (ER), vimentin, p16 and monoclonal carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is useful, several major pitfalls are pointed out and this panel of markers is predominantly of value in 'low-grade' adenocarcinomas. A related group of lesions, including cervical ectopic prostatic tissue and vaginal tubulosquamous polyp, are probably derived from para-urethral Skene's glands and may be positive with prostatic markers. Recent developments in cervical neuroendocrine neoplasms are discussed, as these are associated not uncommonly with a premalignant or malignant endocervical glandular lesion.

Medium-chain triglycerides enhance mucous secretion and cell proliferation in the rat

BACKGROUND

The specific purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) on intestinal cell proliferation and mucous secretion of the small intestine in the rat.

METHODS

Rats were fed chow diet and given MCTs or the same weight of corn oil (5 g/kg per day) by gavage daily for 2 weeks, and then tissue samples of the small intestines were harvested. Leptin concentration in the small intestine was measured. Cell proliferation and apoptosis in the small intestine was determined by immunohistochemistry. Diamine oxidase (DAO) activity was measured by colorimetric assay.

RESULTS

In rats fed only chow diet (normal rats), the number of goblet cells per villi was 14.2 +/- 0.75 in the jejunum and 15.2 +/- 1.12 in the ileum. The number of goblet cells increased significantly in rats given MCTs compared with rats given corn oil or normal rats. Ki-67-positive cells were detected on the entire villi and the crypts in the small intestine. Furthermore, the proliferative index and the apoptotic index were also significantly greater in rats given MCTs than rats given corn oil or normal rats. Moreover, DAO activity and leptin concentration in the small intestine were significantly greater in rats given MCTs than rats given corn oil or normal rats.

CONCLUSIONS

MCTs enhance cell proliferation of the intestinal epithelium and mucous secretion from goblet cells in the small intestine. These effects may protect the gut in patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease or enterogenous infection.