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Isola D, Lee HJ, Chung YJ, Zucconi L, Pelosi C. Once upon a Time, There Was a Piece of Wood: Present Knowledge and Future Perspectives in Fungal Deterioration of Wooden Cultural Heritage in Terrestrial Ecosystems and Diagnostic Tools. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:366. [PMID: 38786721 PMCID: PMC11122135 DOI: 10.3390/jof10050366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Wooden Cultural Heritage (WCH) represents a significant portion of the world's historical and artistic heritage, consisting of immovable and movable artefacts. Despite the expertise developed since ancient times to enhance its durability, wooden artefacts are inevitably prone to degradation. Fungi play a pivotal role in the deterioration of WCH in terrestrial ecosystems, accelerating its decay and leading to alterations in color and strength. Reviewing the literature of the last 25 years, we aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of fungal diversity affecting WCH, the biochemical processes involved in wood decay, and the diagnostic tools available for fungal identification and damage evaluation. Climatic conditions influence the occurrence of fungal species in threatened WCH, characterized by a prevalence of wood-rot fungi (e.g., Serpula lacrymans, Coniophora puteana) in architectural heritage in temperate and continental climates and Ascomycota in indoor and harsh environments. More efforts are needed to address the knowledge fragmentation concerning biodiversity, the biology of the fungi involved, and succession in the degradative process, which is frequently centered solely on the main actors. Multidisciplinary collaboration among engineers, restorers, and life sciences scientists is vital for tackling the challenges posed by climate change with increased awareness. Traditional microbiology and culture collections are fundamental in laying solid foundations for a more comprehensive interpretation of big data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Isola
- Department of Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organization (DEIM), University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università Snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy;
| | - Hyun-Ju Lee
- Institute of Preventive Conservation for Cultural Heritage, Korea National University of Cultural Heritage, Buyeo 33115, Republic of Korea;
| | - Yong-Jae Chung
- Department of Heritage Conservation and Restoration, Graduate School of Cultural Heritage, Korea National University of Cultural Heritage, Buyeo 33115, Republic of Korea;
| | - Laura Zucconi
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences (DEB), University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università Snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy;
| | - Claudia Pelosi
- Department of Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organization (DEIM), University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università Snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy;
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Embacher J, Zeilinger S, Kirchmair M, Rodriguez-R LM, Neuhauser S. Wood decay fungi and their bacterial interaction partners in the built environment – A systematic review on fungal bacteria interactions in dead wood and timber. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2022.100305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Gantenbein S, Colucci E, Käch J, Trachsel E, Coulter FB, Rühs PA, Masania K, Studart AR. Three-dimensional printing of mycelium hydrogels into living complex materials. NATURE MATERIALS 2023; 22:128-134. [PMID: 36550372 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-022-01429-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Biological living materials, such as animal bones and plant stems, are able to self-heal, regenerate, adapt and make decisions under environmental pressures. Despite recent successful efforts to imbue synthetic materials with some of these remarkable functionalities, many emerging properties of complex adaptive systems found in biology remain unexplored in engineered living materials. Here, we describe a three-dimensional printing approach that harnesses the emerging properties of fungal mycelia to create living complex materials that self-repair, regenerate and adapt to the environment while fulfilling an engineering function. Hydrogels loaded with the fungus Ganoderma lucidum are three-dimensionally printed into lattice architectures to enable mycelial growth in a balanced exploration and exploitation pattern that simultaneously promotes colonization of the gel and bridging of air gaps. To illustrate the potential of such mycelium-based living complex materials, we three-dimensionally print a robotic skin that is mechanically robust, self-cleaning and able to autonomously regenerate after damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvan Gantenbein
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Emanuele Colucci
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Julian Käch
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Etienne Trachsel
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Fergal B Coulter
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick A Rühs
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Kunal Masania
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
- Shaping Matter Lab, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands.
| | - André R Studart
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
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Kamkar B, Razavi SE, Sadeghipour HR, López-Bernal Á. Would it be possible to use nonpathogenic fungi to improve the turnover of crop residues? J Basic Microbiol 2021; 61:721-735. [PMID: 34251681 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.202100183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This study was aimed to assess the suitability of four fungal species for operating in the residues of three crops in Golestan province, Iran. For this, four experiments were conducted to analyze their ability to grow on five culture media (Experiment I) and on the residues (Experiment II) and their growth responses to different pHs (Experiment III) and temperature levels (Experiment IV). Then, the possibility of establishing these fungi in the cultivated lands of studied crops was examined. Fungal growth was high on soybean and cotton residues and low on those of rice, and all the fungi produced a significant reduction in the carbon to nitrogen ratios in relation to noninoculated residues. The amount of nitrogen in fungal-treated cotton residues increased about four times compared with the control and in other studied residues increased twice as much as the control. The lowest C:N values for cotton and rice residues were found for Pleurotus ostreatus while Aspergillus niger was the most efficient for those of soybean. The results also showed that these fungi will not show the best performance in respect to temperature and pH, but will not be ineffective. The results could be the basis for further studies on the use of these fungi to improve nutrient cycling, focusing on multicriteria zoning on climatic and soil-related components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behnam Kamkar
- Department of Agrotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
- Department of Agronomy, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Seyed Esmaeil Razavi
- Department of Plant Protection, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
| | | | - Álvaro López-Bernal
- Department of Agronomy, University of Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Córdoba, Spain
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Gomez EJ, Delgado JA, Gonzalez JM. Influence of water availability and temperature on estimates of microbial extracellular enzyme activity. PeerJ 2021; 9:e10994. [PMID: 33717705 PMCID: PMC7936561 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Soils are highly heterogeneous and support highly diverse microbial communities. Microbial extracellular enzymes breakdown complex polymers into small assimilable molecules representing the limiting step of soil organic matter mineralization. This process occurs on to soil particles although currently it is typically estimated in laboratory aqueous solutions. Herein, estimates of microbial extracellular enzyme activity were obtained over a broad range of temperatures and water availabilities frequently observed at soil upper layers. A Pseudomonas strain presented optimum extracellular enzyme activities at high water activity whereas a desiccation resistant bacterium (Deinococcus) and a soil thermophilic isolate (Parageobacillus) showed optimum extracellular enzyme activity under dried (i.e., water activities ranging 0.5–0.8) rather that wet conditions. Different unamended soils presented a distinctive response of extracellular enzyme activity as a function of temperature and water availability. This study presents a procedure to obtain realistic estimates of microbial extracellular enzyme activity under natural soil conditions of extreme water availability and temperature. Improving estimates of microbial extracellular enzyme activity contribute to better understand the role of microorganisms in soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique J Gomez
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, IRNAS-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Jose A Delgado
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, IRNAS-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Juan M Gonzalez
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, IRNAS-CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
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Makariti I, Kapetanakou AE, Gkerekou M, Bertoli M, Dremetsika C, Kalaitzoglou I, Skandamis PN. Using the gamma concept in modelling fungal growth: A case study on brioche-type products. Food Microbiol 2019; 81:12-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2017] [Revised: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Maurice S, Skrede I, LeFloch G, Barbier G, Kauserud H. Population structure of Serpula lacrymans in Europe with an outlook to the French population. Mycologia 2017. [DOI: 10.3852/12-344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sundy Maurice
- Université de Brest, UEB, EA3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IFR148 ScInBioS, ESMISAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France, and Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Inger Skrede
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Georges Barbier
- Université de Brest, UEB, EA3882 Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IFR148 ScInBioS, ESMISAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Håvard Kauserud
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
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Dagnas S, Gougouli M, Onno B, Koutsoumanis KP, Membré JM. Quantifying the effect of water activity and storage temperature on single spore lag times of three moulds isolated from spoiled bakery products. Int J Food Microbiol 2016; 240:75-84. [PMID: 27325576 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The inhibitory effect of water activity (aw) and storage temperature on single spore lag times of Aspergillus niger, Eurotium repens (Aspergillus pseudoglaucus) and Penicillium corylophilum strains isolated from spoiled bakery products, was quantified. A full factorial design was set up for each strain. Data were collected at levels of aw varying from 0.80 to 0.98 and temperature from 15 to 35°C. Experiments were performed on malt agar, at pH5.5. When growth was observed, ca 20 individual growth kinetics per condition were recorded up to 35days. Radius of the colony vs time was then fitted with the Buchanan primary model. For each experimental condition, a lag time variability was observed, it was characterized by its mean, standard deviation (sd) and 5th percentile, after a Normal distribution fit. As the environmental conditions became stressful (e.g. storage temperature and aw lower), mean and sd of single spore lag time distribution increased, indicating longer lag times and higher variability. The relationship between mean and sd followed a monotonous but not linear pattern, identical whatever the species. Next, secondary models were deployed to estimate the cardinal values (minimal, optimal and maximal temperatures, minimal water activity where no growth is observed anymore) for the three species. That enabled to confirm the observation made based on raw data analysis: concerning the temperature effect, A. niger behaviour was significantly different from E. repens and P. corylophilum: Topt of 37.4°C (standard deviation 1.4°C) instead of 27.1°C (1.4°C) and 25.2°C (1.2°C), respectively. Concerning the aw effect, from the three mould species, E. repens was the species able to grow at the lowest aw (awmin estimated to 0.74 (0.02)). Finally, results obtained with single spores were compared to findings from a previous study carried out at the population level (Dagnas et al., 2014). For short lag times (≤5days), there was no difference between lag time of the population (ca 2000 spores inoculated in one spot) and mean (nor 5th percentile) of single spore lag time distribution. In contrast, when lag time was longer, i.e. under more stressful conditions, there was a discrepancy between individual and population lag times (population lag times shorter than 5th percentiles of single spore lag time distribution), confirming a stochastic process. Finally, the temperature cardinal values estimated with single spores were found to be similar to those obtained at the population level, whatever the species. All these findings will be used to describe better mould spore lag time variability and then to predict more accurately bakery product shelf-life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Dagnas
- L'Université Nantes Angers Le Mans, Oniris, Nantes F-44322 cedex 3, France
| | - Maria Gougouli
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Hygiene, Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; Department of Food Science and Technology, Perrotis College, American Farm School, Thessaloniki 55102, Greece
| | - Bernard Onno
- L'Université Nantes Angers Le Mans, Oniris, Nantes F-44322 cedex 3, France
| | - Konstantinos P Koutsoumanis
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Hygiene, Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
| | - Jeanne-Marie Membré
- UMR1014 SECALIM, INRA, Oniris, 44307 Nantes, France; L'Université Nantes Angers Le Mans, Oniris, Nantes F-44322 cedex 3, France.
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Effect of metal ions on autofluorescence of the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans grown on spruce wood. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2016; 61:119-28. [PMID: 26873389 DOI: 10.1007/s12223-015-0415-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This work describes autofluorescence of the mycelium of the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans grown on spruce wood blocks impregnated with various metals. Live mycelium, as opposed to dead mycelium, exhibited yellow autofluorescence upon blue excitation, blue fluorescence with ultraviolet (UV) excitation, orange-red and light-blue fluorescence with violet excitation, and red fluorescence with green excitation. Distinctive autofluorescence was observed in the fungal cell wall and in granula localized in the cytoplasm. In dead mycelium, the intensity of autofluorescence decreased and the signal was diffused throughout the cytoplasm. Metal treatment affected both the color and intensity of autofluorescence and also the morphology of the mycelium. The strongest yellow signal was observed with blue excitation in Cd-treated samples, in conjunction with increased branching and the formation of mycelial loops and protrusions. For the first time, we describe pink autofluorescence that was observed in Mn-, Zn-, and Cu-treated samples with UV, violet or. blue excitation. The lowest signals were obtained in Cu- and Fe-treated samples. Chitin, an important part of the fungal cell wall exhibited intensive primary fluorescence with UV, violet, blue, and green excitation.
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Morin-Sardin S, Rigalma K, Coroller L, Jany JL, Coton E. Effect of temperature, pH, and water activity on Mucor spp. growth on synthetic medium, cheese analog and cheese. Food Microbiol 2015; 56:69-79. [PMID: 26919819 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2015.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Mucor genus includes a large number of ubiquitous fungal species. In the dairy environment, some of them play a technological role providing typical organoleptic qualities to some cheeses while others can cause spoilage. In this study, we compared the effect of relevant abiotic factors for cheese production on the growth of six strains representative of dairy technological and contaminant species as well as of a non cheese related strain (plant endophyte). Growth kinetics were determined for each strain in function of temperature, water activity and pH on synthetic Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), and secondary models were fitted to calculate the corresponding specific cardinal values. Using these values and growth kinetics acquired at 15 °C on cheese agar medium (CA) along with three different cheese types, optimal growth rates (μopt) were estimated and consequently used to establish a predictive model. Contrarily to contaminant strains, technological strains showed higher μopt on cheese matrices than on PDA. Interestingly, lag times of the endophyte strain were strongly extended on cheese related matrices. This study offers a relevant predictive model of growth that may be used for better cheese production control but also raises the question of adaptation of some Mucor strains to the cheese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Morin-Sardin
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Karim Rigalma
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Louis Coroller
- Université de Brest, EA3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, UMT Spore Risk, IUT Quimper, 6 Rue de l'Université, 29334 Quimper, France
| | - Jean-Luc Jany
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
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Lin Z, Wei J, Zhang M, Xu S, Guo Q, Wang X, Wang J, Chen B, Que Y, Deng Z, Chen R, Powell CA. Identification and Characterization of a New Fungal Pathogen Causing Twisted Leaf Disease of Sugarcane in China. PLANT DISEASE 2015; 99:325-332. [PMID: 30699701 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-06-14-0661-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Sugarcane twisted leaf disease, caused by Phoma sp., was first reported in Guangxi, China, in 2012, when more than 5% of sugarcane was infected in the field. Three single-spore isolates were recovered from symptomatic leaves. Sequences from five fungal loci, 28S nrDNA (LSU), 18S nrDNA (SSU), the internal transcribed spacer regions 1 and 2 and 5.8S nrDNA (ITS), β-tubulin (TUB), and the translation elongation factor alpha (TEF-α) were amplified from the disease-associated isolates. The twisted leaf disease pathogen was identified and formally described as Phoma sorghina var. saccharum through phylogenetic analyses, morphological observations, and the pathogenicity of the isolates on sugarcane. P. sorghina var. saccharum can be differentiated from related species based on the morphology of pycnidia and chlamydospores that formed regular, glabrous, papillate ostioles. Chlamydospore-anamorph was unicellular, botryoid-alternarioid shape, as well as the binucleate, frequently branched hyphae. We also showed that mycelial growth of P. sorghina var. saccharum was optimal at pH 4.0 and 20 to 25°C. Additionally, among 13 chemical compounds tested, carbendazim was found to be the most effective in suppressing the radial growth of the fungus. Mycelial growth in vitro was completely inhibited at concentrations of 100 and 50 ppm, and 87.6% of mycelial growth was inhibited at 10 ppm. Carbendazim is therefore a potentially effective fungicide to control this disease in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyue Lin
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China; and College of Crop Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jingjing Wei
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China; and College of Crop Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Muqing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China; and College of Crop Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Shiqiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China
| | - Qiang Guo
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China
| | - Xin Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China
| | - Jihua Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China
| | - Baoshan Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, Guanxi University, Nanning, Guanxi 530004, China
| | - Youxiong Que
- College of Crop Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Zuhu Deng
- College of Crop Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Rukai Chen
- College of Crop Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
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Kaffenberger JT, Schilling JS. Comparing lignocellulose physiochemistry after decomposition by brown rot fungi with distinct evolutionary origins. Environ Microbiol 2014; 17:4885-97. [PMID: 25181619 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Among wood-degrading fungi, lineages holding taxa that selectively metabolize carbohydrates without significant lignin removal (brown rot) are polyphyletic, having evolved multiple times from lignin-removing white rot fungi. Given the qualitative nature of the 'brown rot' classifier, we aimed to quantify and compare the temporal sequence of carbohydrate removal among brown rot clades. Lignocellulose deconstruction was compared among fungi using distinct plant substrates (angiosperm, conifer, grass). Specifically, aspen, pine and corn stalk were harvested over a 16-week time series from microcosms containing Gloeophyllum trabeum, Fomitopsis pinicola, Ossicaulis lignatilis, Fistulina hepatica, Serpula lacrymans, Wolfiporia cocos or Dacryopinax sp. After quantifying plant mass loss, a thorough compositional analysis was complemented by a saccharification test to determine wood cell wall accessibility. Mass loss and accessibility varied depending on fungal decomposer and substrate, and trajectories of loss for hemicellulosic components and cellulose differed among plant tissue types. At any given stage of decomposition, however, lignocellulose accessibility and the fraction remaining of carbohydrates and lignin within a plant tissue type were generally the same, regardless of fungal isolate. This suggests that the sequence of plant component removal at this typical scale of characterization is shared among these brown rot lineages, despite their diverse genomes and secretomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin T Kaffenberger
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, 2004 Folwell Avenue, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Jonathan S Schilling
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, 2004 Folwell Avenue, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA.,Institute on the Environment, University of Minnesota, 1954 Buford Avenue, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA
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Abstract
This article is a review of how to quantify mold spoilage and consequently shelf life of a food product. Mold spoilage results from having a product contaminated with fungal spores that germinate and form a visible mycelium before the end of the shelf life. The spoilage can be then expressed as the combination of the probability of having a product contaminated and the probability of mold growth (germination and proliferation) up to a visible mycelium before the end of the shelf life. For products packed before being distributed to the retailers, the probability of having a product contaminated is a function of factors strictly linked to the factory design, process, and environment. The in-factory fungal contamination of a product might be controlled by good manufacturing hygiene practices and reduced by particular processing practices such as an adequate air-renewal system. To determine the probability of mold growth, both germination and mycelium proliferation can be mathematically described by primary models. When mold contamination on the product is scarce, the spores are spread on the product and more than a few spores are unlikely to be found at the same spot. In such a case, models applicable for a single spore should be used. Secondary models can be used to describe the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on either the germination or proliferation of molds. Several polynomial models and gamma-type models quantifying the effect of water activity and temperature on mold growth are available. To a lesser extent, the effect of pH, ethanol, heat treatment, addition of preservatives, and modified atmospheres on mold growth also have been quantified. However, mold species variability has not yet been properly addressed, and only a few secondary models have been validated for food products. Once the probability of having mold spoilage is calculated for various shelf lives and product formulations, the model can be implemented as part of a risk management decision tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Dagnas
- L'Université Nantes Angers Le Mans, Oniris, Nantes F-44322 cédex 3, France
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