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Miranda RB, Klaczko J, Tonini JF, Brandão RA. Escaping from predators: a review of Neotropical lizards defence traits. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2022.2082538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rogério B. Miranda
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - Julia Klaczko
- Laboratório de Anatomia Comparada de Vertebrados, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - João F.R. Tonini
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA), USA
| | - Reuber Albuquerque Brandão
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
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2
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Iwasa MA, Hasegawa A. Caudal Vertebral Fragilities Related to Loss of a Tail Part in Two Species of the Japanese Field Mice. MAMMAL STUDY 2022. [DOI: 10.3106/ms2020-0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro A. Iwasa
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Atsushi Hasegawa
- College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
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3
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Fernández-Rodríguez I, Braña F. Allocation costs of regeneration: tail regeneration constrains body growth under low food availability in juvenile lizards. Oecologia 2021; 198:853-864. [PMID: 34907460 PMCID: PMC9056467 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05084-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The balance of energy allocated to development and growth of different body compartments may incur allocation conflicts and can thereby entail physiological and evolutionary consequences. Regeneration after autotomy restores the functionality lost after shedding a body part but requires a strong energy investment that may trade-off with other processes, like reproduction or growth. Caudal autotomy is a widespread antipredator strategy in lizards, but regeneration may provoke decreased growth rates in juveniles that could have subsequent consequences. Here, we assessed the growth of intact and regenerating hatchling wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) exposed to different food regimens. Regenerating juveniles presented slightly but significantly lower body growth rates than individuals with intact tails when facing low food availability, but there were no differences when food was supplied ad libitum. Regenerating individuals fed ad libitum increased their ingestion rates compared to intact ones during the period of greatest tail growth, which also reveals a cost of tail regeneration. When resources were scarce, hatchlings invested more in tail regeneration in relation to body growth, rather than delay regeneration to give priority to body growth. We propose that, in juvenile lizards, regeneration could be prioritized even at the expense of body growth to restore the functionality of the lost tail, likely increasing survivorship and the probability to reach reproductive maturity. Our study indicates that food availability is a key factor for the occurrence of trade-offs between regeneration and other growth processes, so that environmental conditions would be determinant for the severity of the costs of regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Fernández-Rodríguez
- Department of Organisms and Systems Biology (Zoology), University of Oviedo, 33071, Oviedo, Spain. .,Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB, UO/CSIC/PA), University of Oviedo, Mieres, Spain.
| | - Florentino Braña
- Department of Organisms and Systems Biology (Zoology), University of Oviedo, 33071, Oviedo, Spain.,Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB, UO/CSIC/PA), University of Oviedo, Mieres, Spain
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4
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Barr JI, Boisvert CA, Bateman PW. At What Cost? Trade-Offs and Influences on Energetic Investment in Tail Regeneration in Lizards Following Autotomy. J Dev Biol 2021; 9:53. [PMID: 34940500 PMCID: PMC8709428 DOI: 10.3390/jdb9040053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Caudal autotomy, the ability to shed a portion of the tail, is a widespread defence strategy among lizards. Following caudal autotomy, and during regeneration, lizards face both short- and long-term costs associated with the physical loss of the tail and the energy required for regeneration. As such, the speed at which the individual regenerates its tail (regeneration rate) should reflect the fitness priorities of the individual. However, multiple factors influence the regeneration rate in lizards, making inter-specific comparisons difficult and hindering broader scale investigations. We review regeneration rates for lizards and tuatara from the published literature, discuss how species' fitness priorities and regeneration rates are influenced by specific, life history and environmental factors, and provide recommendations for future research. Regeneration rates varied extensively (0-4.3 mm/day) across the 56 species from 14 family groups. Species-specific factors, influencing regeneration rates, varied based on the type of fracture plane, age, sex, reproductive season, and longevity. Environmental factors including temperature, photoperiod, nutrition, and stress also affected regeneration rates, as did the method of autotomy induction, and the position of the tail also influenced regeneration rates for lizards. Additionally, regeneration could alter an individual's behaviour, growth, and reproductive output, but this varied depending on the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I. Barr
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Catherine A. Boisvert
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
| | - Philip W. Bateman
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
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5
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Naidenov LA, Allen WL. Tail autotomy works as a pre-capture defense by deflecting attacks. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:3058-3064. [PMID: 33841766 PMCID: PMC8019039 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Caudal autotomy is a dramatic antipredator adaptation where prey shed their tail in order to escape capture by a predator. The mechanism underlying the effectiveness of caudal autotomy as a pre-capture defense has not been thoroughly investigated. We tested two nonexclusive hypotheses, that caudal autotomy works by providing the predator with a "consolation prize" that makes it break off the hunt to consume the shed tail, and the deflection hypothesis, where the autotomy event directs predator attacks to the autotomized tail enabling prey escape. Our experiment utilized domestic dogs Canis familiaris as model predator engaged to chase a snake-like stimulus with a detachable tail. The tail was manipulated to vary in length (long versus short) and conspicuousness (green versus blue), with the prediction that dog attacks on the tail should increase with length under the consolation-prize hypothesis and conspicuous color under the deflection hypothesis. The tail was attacked on 35% of trials, supporting the potential for pre-capture autotomy to offer antipredator benefits. Dogs were attracted to the tail when it was conspicuously colored, but not when it was longer. This supports the idea that deflection of predator attacks through visual effects is the prime antipredator mechanism underlying the effectiveness of caudal autotomy as opposed to provision of a consolation prize meal.
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Kuriyama T, Murakami A, Brandley M, Hasegawa M. Blue, Black, and Stripes: Evolution and Development of Color Production and Pattern Formation in Lizards and Snakes. Front Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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A Matador-like Predator Diversion Strategy Driven by Conspicuous Coloration in Guppies. Curr Biol 2020; 30:2844-2851.e8. [PMID: 32531279 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the adaptive function of conspicuous coloration has been a major focus of evolutionary biology for much of the last century. Although considerable progress has been made in explaining how conspicuous coloration can be used in functions as diverse as sexual and social signaling, startling predators, and advertising toxicity [1], there remain a multitude of species that display conspicuous coloration that cannot be explained by existing theory. Here we detail a new "matador-like" divertive antipredator strategy based on conspicuous coloration in Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Guppies encountering predatory fish rapidly enhance the conspicuousness of their eyes by blackening their irises. By pitting biomimetic robotic guppies against real predatory fish, we show this conspicuous eye coloration diverts attacks away from the guppies' center of mass to their head. To determine the function of this seemingly counterintuitive behavior, we developed a method for simulating escape probabilities when live prey interact with ballistic attacking predators, and find this diversion effect significantly benefits black-eyed guppies because they evade capture by rapidly pivoting away from the predator once it has committed to its attack. Remarkably, this antipredator strategy reverses the commonly observed negative scaling relationship between prey size and evasive ability, with larger fish benefiting most from diverting predators. Taken together, our results introduce a new antipredator divertive strategy that may be widely used by conspicuously colored prey that rely on agility to escape their predators.
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Fox SF, Rodríguez-Romero FDJ, Crosby AA. Juvenile-juvenile social signalling: a case for precocial sexual selection in the collared lizard, Crotaphytus collaris (Squamata: Crotaphytidae)? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Sexual selection is widespread in animals, but quite naturally studied in adults. Juvenile males in most animals are not differentiated from females and coloration is usually drab. However, there is no reason to suspect that sexual differences cannot develop before puberty, influence social interactions, and then have fitness pay-offs later in life. Juvenile collared lizards (Crotaphytus collaris (Say, 1822)) show marked dichromatism: males develop bright dorsolateral orange bars whereas females do not. These juvenile orange bars (JOB) disappear at sexual maturity, when males develop different colour traits maintained by sexual selection. We conducted field experiments with juvenile males on their developing territories in which we utilized staged intruders of juvenile males (with JOB) and juvenile females (lacking JOB) and also juvenile male intruders whose JOB were manipulated. Residents reacted significantly more aggressively toward males vs. females, and also toward males whose JOB were emphasized with paint than those whose JOB were masked by paint. These JOB are used in signalling among juveniles and we suggest the social relations established then are retained until sexual maturation the next spring (after the JOB are lost) to benefit males that previously displayed strong JOB by increased matings in the spring as sexually mature yearlings as per a phenomenon we call precocial sexual selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley F Fox
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Felipe De Jesús Rodríguez-Romero
- Laboratorio de Sistemas Biosustentables, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, El Cerrillo Piedras Blancas, Toluca, Estado de México, México
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Abramjan A, Baranová V, Frýdlová P, Landová E, Frynta D. Ultraviolet reflectance and pattern properties in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). Behav Processes 2020; 173:104060. [PMID: 31991157 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Revised: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Complex visual signaling through various combinations of colors and patterns has been well documented in a number of diurnal reptiles. However, there are many nocturnal species with highly sensitive vision, being able to discriminate colors in night conditions, as was shown in geckos. Because of their sensitivity to chromatic signals, including UV (ultraviolet), they may have potential hidden features in their coloration, which may play role in intraspecific communication (e.g. mate choice) or interspecific signals (e.g. antipredatory function). We explored this hypothesis in nocturnal Leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius), a species using visual signals in both antipredation defense and courtship, having ontogenetic color change accompanied by a shift in behavior. We used UV photography and visual modeling in order to compare various aspects of their coloration (luminance, contrast, color proportions) between sexes, age groups and populations. We found that Leopard geckos have considerable UV reflectance in white patches on their tails (and on the head in juveniles). Though, no prominent differences were detected in their coloration between various groups. We hypothesize that the limitation of UV reflectance to the head and tail, which are both actively displayed during defense, especially in juveniles, might potentially boost the effect of antipredation signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andran Abramjan
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, CZ-12844, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Baranová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, CZ-12844, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Frýdlová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, CZ-12844, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Landová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, CZ-12844, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Daniel Frynta
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, CZ-12844, Prague, Czech Republic
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Barr JI, Boisvert CA, Somaweera R, Trinajstic K, Bateman PW. Re-regeneration to reduce negative effects associated with tail loss in lizards. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18717. [PMID: 31822746 PMCID: PMC6904483 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55231-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Many species of lizard use caudal autotomy, the ability to self-amputate a portion of their tail, regenerated over time, as an effective anti-predation mechanism. The importance of this tactic for survival depends on the degree of predation risk. There are, however, negative trade-offs to losing a tail, such as loss of further autotomy opportunities with the regenerated tail vertebrae being replaced by a continuous cartilaginous rod. The common consensus has been that once a tail has been autotomised and regenerated it can only be autotomised proximal to the last vertebral autotomy point, as the cartilage rod lacks autotomy planes. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that although the regenerated portion of the tail is unable to autotomise, it can re-regenerate following a physical shearing event. We assessed re-regeneration in three populations of the King’s skink (Egernia kingii), a large lizard endemic to south-west Western Australia and surrounding islands. We show that re-regeneration is present at an average of 17.2% across the three populations, and re-regenerated tissue can comprise up to 23.3% of an individual’s total tail length. The ability to re-regenerate may minimise the costs to an individual’s fitness associated with tail loss, efficiently restoring ecological functions of the tail.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I Barr
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia. .,CSIRO Land and Water, 147 Underwood Avenue, Floreat, WA, 6014, Australia.
| | - Catherine A Boisvert
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
| | - Ruchira Somaweera
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, 147 Underwood Avenue, Floreat, WA, 6014, Australia
| | - Kate Trinajstic
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia
| | - Philip W Bateman
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia.
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11
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Myette AL, Hossie TJ, Murray DL. Defensive posture in a terrestrial salamander deflects predatory strikes irrespective of body size. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
A wide variety of prey use defensive postures as a means of protection from predators. Many salamanders engage in broadly similar defensive postures, which may function as a warning signal and reduce the probability of attack, or may deflect predator attacks away from vital body parts. The extent to which these strategies (i.e., aposematism and deflection) act exclusively or synergistically, however, remains unknown. We deployed clay salamanders in the field, manipulating size (small, large) and posture (resting, defensive), and documented attack rates across three predator types. Competing risks analysis revealed that attack rates were affected by model size, deployment period, and leaf litter depth at the site of deployment, whereas model posture had no significant effect. Model size and posture did not interact, indicating that defensive posture was ineffective in deterring attack irrespective of prey size. Model prey in the defensive posture received significantly more attacks on the tail irrespective of size, and the defensive posture was more effective at deflecting avian attacks compared to mammal predation. We conclude that defensive posture increases tail conspicuousness without increasing predation risk, and primarily functions to deflect attacks away from vital body parts. The efficacy of defection may be further increased by tail undulation, however our use of static models means that we cannot exclude aposematic or deimatic functions for such movements. Our results provide important support for the deflection hypothesis in explaining antipredator behavior, and thereby set the stage for additional research targeting the functionality of attack deflection in natural predator–prey encounters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander L Myette
- Department of Environmental and Life Sciences, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Thomas J Hossie
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dennis L Murray
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
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Emberts Z, Escalante I, Bateman PW. The ecology and evolution of autotomy. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:1881-1896. [PMID: 31240822 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Autotomy, the self-induced loss of a body part, occurs throughout Animalia. A lizard dropping its tail to escape predation is an iconic example, however, autotomy occurs in a diversity of other organisms. Octopuses can release their arms, crabs can drop their claws, and bugs can amputate their legs. The diversity of organisms that can autotomize body parts has led to a wealth of research and several taxonomically focused reviews. These reviews have played a crucial role in advancing our understanding of autotomy within their respective groups. However, because of their taxonomic focus, these reviews are constrained in their ability to enhance our understanding of autotomy. Here, we aim to synthesize research on the ecology and evolution of autotomy throughout Animalia, building a unified framework on which future studies can expand. We found that the ability to drop an appendage has evolved multiple times throughout Animalia and that once autotomy has evolved, selection appears to act on the removable appendage to increase the efficacy and/or efficiency of autotomy. This could explain why some autotomizable body parts are so elaborate (e.g. brightly coloured). We also show that there are multiple benefits, and variable costs, associated with autotomy. Given this variation, we generate an economic theory of autotomy (modified from the economic theory of escape) which makes predictions about when an individual should resort to autotomy. Finally, we show that the loss of an autotomizable appendage can have numerous consequences on population and community dynamics. By taking this broad taxonomic approach, we identified patterns of autotomy that transcend specific lineages and highlight clear directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Emberts
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, 876 Newell Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Ignacio Escalante
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, & Management, University of California, 140 Mulford Hall, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Philip W Bateman
- Behavioural Ecology Lab, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
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Barr JI, Somaweera R, Godfrey SS, Bateman PW. Increased tail length in the King’s skink,Egernia kingii(Reptilia: Scincidae): an anti-predation tactic for juveniles? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James I Barr
- Behavioural Ecology Lab., School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
- CSIRO Land and Water, Floreat, WA , Australia
| | | | - Stephanie S Godfrey
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, North Dunedin, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Philip W Bateman
- Behavioural Ecology Lab., School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
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Nasri I, Hamza F, Belliure J, Selmi S. Tail conspicuousness and antipredatory behaviour in Bosk’s fringe-toed lizard (Acanthodactylus boskianus). ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2017.1402091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Intissar Nasri
- UR17ES44 – Écologie de la Faune Terrestre, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Gabès, Zrig 6072, Gabès, Tunisia
| | - Foued Hamza
- UR17ES44 – Écologie de la Faune Terrestre, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Gabès, Zrig 6072, Gabès, Tunisia
| | - Josabel Belliure
- Unidad de Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Edificio de Ciencias, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Slaheddine Selmi
- UR17ES44 – Écologie de la Faune Terrestre, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Gabès, Zrig 6072, Gabès, Tunisia
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Kuriyama T, Hasegawa M. Embryonic developmental process governing the conspicuousness of body stripes and blue tail coloration in the lizardPlestiodon latiscutatus. Evol Dev 2016; 19:29-39. [DOI: 10.1111/ede.12214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takeo Kuriyama
- Institute of Natural and Environmental Sciences; University of Hyogo; Sawano 940, Aogaki-cho, Tanba-shi Hyogo 669-3842 Japan
- Wildlife Management Research Center; Hyogo; Sawano 940, Aogaki-cho, Tanba-shi Hyogo 669-3842 Japan
| | - Masami Hasegawa
- Faculty of Science; Department of Biology; Toho University; Miyama 2-2-1, Funabashi-shi Chiba 274-8510 Japan
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17
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Kuriyama T, Morimoto G, Miyaji K, Hasegawa M. Cellular basis of anti-predator adaptation in a lizard with autotomizable blue tail against specific predators with different colour vision. J Zool (1987) 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Kuriyama
- Department of Biology; Faculty of Science; Toho University; Funabashi Chiba Japan
- Department of Geology; Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - G. Morimoto
- Department of Life-Sciences; Rikkyo University; Toshima Tokyo Japan
- Tokyo Bay Ecosystem Research Center; Toho University; Funabashi Chiba Japan
| | - K. Miyaji
- Department of Biology; Faculty of Science; Toho University; Funabashi Chiba Japan
| | - M. Hasegawa
- Department of Biology; Faculty of Science; Toho University; Funabashi Chiba Japan
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Murali G, Kodandaramaiah U. Deceived by stripes: conspicuous patterning on vital anterior body parts can redirect predatory strikes to expendable posterior organs. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:160057. [PMID: 27429765 PMCID: PMC4929900 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Conspicuous coloration, which presumably makes prey more visible to predators, has intrigued researchers for long. Contrastingly coloured, conspicuous striped patterns are common among lizards and other animals, but their function is not well known. We propose and test a novel hypothesis, the 'redirection hypothesis', wherein longitudinal striped patterns, such as those found on the anterior body parts of most lacertilians, redirect attacks away from themselves during motion towards less vulnerable posterior parts, for example, the autotomous tail. In experiments employing human 'predators' attacking virtual prey on a touchscreen, we show that longitudinal striped patterns on the anterior half of prey decreased attacks to the anterior and increased attacks to the posterior. The position of stripes mattered-they worked best when they were at the anterior. By employing an adaptive psychophysical procedure, we show that prey with striped patterning are perceived to move slower, offering a mechanistic explanation for the redirective effect. In summary, our results suggest that the presence of stripes on the body (i.e. head and trunk) of lizards in combination with caudal autotomy can work as an effective anti-predator strategy during motion.
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Kjernsmo K, Grönholm M, Merilaita S. Adaptive constellations of protective marks: eyespots, eye stripes and diversion of attacks by fish. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Fresnillo B, Belliure J, Cuervo JJ. Red coloration in juvenile spiny-footed lizards, Acanthodactylus erythrurus, reduces adult aggression. Anim Behav 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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23
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Ortega J, López P, Martín J. Conspicuous blue tails, dorsal pattern morphs and escape behaviour in hatchling Iberian wall lizards (Podarcis hispanicus). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Ortega
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva; Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales; C.S.I.C.; José Gutiérrez Abascal 2 E-28006 Madrid Spain
| | - Pilar López
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva; Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales; C.S.I.C.; José Gutiérrez Abascal 2 E-28006 Madrid Spain
| | - José Martín
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva; Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales; C.S.I.C.; José Gutiérrez Abascal 2 E-28006 Madrid Spain
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Brandley MC, Kuriyama T, Hasegawa M. Snake and bird predation drive the repeated convergent evolution of correlated life history traits and phenotype in the Izu Island Scincid lizard (Plestiodon latiscutatus). PLoS One 2014; 9:e92233. [PMID: 24667496 PMCID: PMC3965430 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Predation may create strong natural selection pressure on the phenotype and life history characteristics of prey species. The Izu scincid lizards (Plestiodon latiscutatus) that inhabit the four Japanese Izu Islands with only bird predators are drab brown, mature later, lay small clutches of large eggs, and hatch large neonates. In contrast, skinks on seven islands with both snake and bird predators are conspicuously colored, mature early, lay large clutches of small eggs, and hatch small neonates. We test the hypothesis that these suites of traits have evolved independently on each island via natural selection pressures from one of two predator regimes--birds-only and birds + snakes. Using two mtDNA genes and a nuclear locus, we infer a time-calibrated phylogeny of P. latiscutatus that reveals a basal split between Mikura and all islands south, and Miyake, all islands north, and the Izu Peninsula. Populations inhabiting Miyake, Niijima, Shikine, and Toshima are not monophyletic, suggesting either multiple colonizations or an artifact of incomplete lineage sorting (ILS). We therefore developed novel phylogenetic comparative analyses that assume either a multiple colonization or more restrictive single colonization ILS scenario and found 1) statistically significant support for the of different suites of phenotypic and life history characteristics with the presence of bird-only or bird + snake predator assemblages, and 2) strong phylogenetic support for at least two independent derivations of either the "bird-only" or "snakes + birds" phenotypes regardless of colonization scenario. Finally, our time-calibrated phylogeographic analysis supports the conclusion that the ancestor to modern Izu Island P. latiscutatus dispersed from the mainland to the Izu proto-islands between 3-7.6 million years ago (Ma). These lineages remained present in the area during successive formation of the islands, with one lineage re-colonizing the mainland 0.24-0.7 Ma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Takeo Kuriyama
- Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi City, Chiba, Japan
| | - Masami Hasegawa
- Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi City, Chiba, Japan
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25
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Jagnandan K, Russell AP, Higham TE. Tail autotomy and subsequent regeneration alter the mechanics of locomotion in lizards. J Exp Biol 2014; 217:3891-7. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.110916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Animals undergo significant weight change due to a variety of causes. Autotomy, the voluntary shedding of an appendage in response to a predator stimulus, provides an effective model for measuring the effects of rapid weight change on locomotor behavior and the responses to more gradual weight gain, particularly in lizards capable of both autotomizing and regenerating their tail. Although the general effects of autotomy on locomotor performance are commonly explored, we investigated changes in locomotor mechanics associated with tail loss and long-term regeneration for the first time by measuring morphology, 3D kinematics, and ground reaction forces (GRFs) in the leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius. Tail autotomy resulted in a 13% anterior shift in the center of mass (CoM), which only partially recovered after full regeneration of the tail. Although no changes in body or forelimb kinematics were evident, decreases in hindlimb joint angles signify a more sprawled posture following autotomy. Changes in hindlimb GRFs resulted in an increase in weight-specific propulsive force, without a corresponding change in locomotor speed. Hindlimb kinematics and GRFs following autotomy recovered to pre-autotomy values as the tail regenerated. These results suggest an active locomotor response to tail loss that demonstrates the causal relationships between morphological, kinematic, and force variation.
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26
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Ontogenetic switch between alternative antipredatory strategies in the leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius): defensive threat versus escape. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-013-1536-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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28
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Umbers KDL. On the perception, production and function of blue colouration in animals. J Zool (1987) 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kate D. L. Umbers
- Department of Biological Sciences; Macquarie University; Sydney NSW Australia
- Research School of Biology; Australian National University; Canberra Australia
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29
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Watson CM, Roelke CE, Pasichnyk PN, Cox CL. The fitness consequences of the autotomous blue tail in lizards: an empirical test of predator response using clay models. ZOOLOGY 2012; 115:339-44. [PMID: 22938695 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Numerous vertebrates employ one or more autotomous body parts as an anti-predation mechanism. Many lizards possess an autotomous tail that is brightly colored blue, which has been suggested to either serve as a decoy mechanism to divert predator attention to the autotomous body part, as an interspecific signal, or as an aposematic signal to predators that it is distasteful or dangerous. While theoretical studies suggest that a conspicuous autotomous body part that increases the probability of escape while not increasing the rate of detection will be favorable over a completely cryptic form, there is little empirical evidence supporting the adaptive benefit of an autotomous blue tail. We used in situ clay models of a scincid lizard to test the fitness consequences of blue coloration. Lizard models with a dark base color and blue decoy coloration experienced no measurable difference in avian predation relative to an all-dark model, which suggests that blue coloration neither serves as an aposematic signal nor increases the conspicuousness of the lizard model. Despite statistically similar attack rates, avian attacks on models with blue coloration were indeed focused on body sections that were colored blue. Our results suggest that the blue tail in lizards serves as an effective decoy, and that avian predation has possibly played a role in the evolution of the blue tail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles M Watson
- Department of Biology and Health Sciences, McNeese State University, Box 92000, Lake Charles, LA 70609, USA.
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30
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Higham TE, Russell AP. Time-varying motor control of autotomized leopard gecko tails: multiple inputs and behavioral modulation. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:435-41. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.054460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Autotomy (voluntary loss of an appendage) is common among diverse groups of vertebrates and invertebrates, and much attention has been given to ecological and developmental aspects of tail autotomy in lizards. Although most studies have focused on the ramifications for the lizard (behavior, biomechanics, energetics, etc.), the tail itself can exhibit interesting behaviors once segregated from the body. For example, recent work highlighted the ability of leopard gecko tails to jump and flip, in addition to being able to swing back and forth. Little is known, however, about the control mechanisms underlying these movements. Using electromyography, we examined the time-varying in vivo motor patterns at four sites (two proximal and two distal) in the tail of the leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius, following autotomy. Using these data we tested the hypothesis that the disparity in movements results simply from overlapping pattern generators within the tail. We found that burst duration, but not cycle duration, of the rhythmic swings reached a plateau at approximately 150 s following autotomy. This is likely because of physiological changes related to muscle fatigue and ischemia. For flips and jumps, burst and cycle duration exhibited no regular pattern. The coefficient of variation in motor patterns was significantly greater for jumps and flips than for rhythmic swings. This supports the conclusion that the different tail behaviors do not stem from overlapping pattern generators, but that they rely upon independent neural circuits. The signal controlling jumps and flips may be modified by sensory information from the environment. Finally, we found that jumps and flips are initiated using relatively synchronous activity between the two sides of the tail. In contrast, alternating activation of the right and left sides of the tail result in rhythmic swings. The mechanism underlying this change in tail behavior is comparable to locomotor gait changes in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 132 Long Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Anthony P. Russell
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
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31
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Telemeco RS, Baird TA, Shine R. Tail waving in a lizard (Bassiana duperreyi) functions to deflect attacks rather than as a pursuit-deterrent signal. Anim Behav 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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BATEMAN PHILIPW, FLEMING PATRICIAA. Frequency of tail loss reflects variation in predation levels, predator efficiency, and the behaviour of three populations of brown anoles. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01646.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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33
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Cooper, WE, Sherbrooke WC. Crypsis influences escape decisions in the Round-tailed Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma modestum). CAN J ZOOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Flight initiation distance (predator–prey distance when escape begins) increases as predation risk increases. Prey should have longer flight initiation distance when their background, movement, or current posture reduces crypsis. Flight initiation distance of ectotherms may increase at lower body temperature to compensate for slower running speed. However, for cryptic prey, fleeing might increase the probability of being detected. The Round-tailed Horned Lizard ( Phrynosoma modestum Girard, 1852) is eucryptic and resembles small stones. We predicted that flight initiation distance by P. modestum is shorter among stones than on uniform sand. Because movement and upright posture disrupt crypsis, we predicted that flight initiation distance is greater after movement and when standing than when still and lying on the ground. As predicted, flight initiation distances were shorter on a rocky than sandy area, when lying flat than standing, and while immobile than after moving. We measured running speed and flight initiation distance to determine relationships among body temperature, speed, and escape decisions. Running speed and flight initiation distance were reduced at lower body temperature, suggesting that crypsis reinforced by immobility is more advantageous than longer flight initiation distance for cool, slow lizards. The lizards adjusted escape decisions to current effectiveness of crypsis and escape ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E. Cooper,
- Department of Biology, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
- Southwestern Research Station, American Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 16553, Portal, AZ 85632, USA
| | - Wade C. Sherbrooke
- Department of Biology, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
- Southwestern Research Station, American Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 16553, Portal, AZ 85632, USA
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Martín J, Luque-Larena JJ, López P. When to run from an ambush predator: balancing crypsis benefits with costs of fleeing in lizards. Anim Behav 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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36
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37
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38
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ORTOLANI ALESSIA. Spots, stripes, tail tips and dark eyes: Predicting the function of carnivore colour patterns using the comparative method. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01942.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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39
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BLEIWEISS ROBERT. Reversed plumage ontogeny in a female hummingbird: implications for the evolution of iridescent colours and sexual dichromatism. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1992.tb00664.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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40
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Berger S, Wikelski M, Romero LM, Kalko EKV, Rödl T. Behavioral and physiological adjustments to new predators in an endemic island species, the Galápagos marine iguana. Horm Behav 2007; 52:653-63. [PMID: 17904141 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2007] [Revised: 08/09/2007] [Accepted: 08/09/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
For the past 5 to 15 million years, marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), endemic to the Galápagos archipelago, experienced relaxed predation pressure and consequently show negligible anti-predator behavior. However, over the past few decades introduced feral cats and dogs started to prey on iguanas on some of the islands. We investigated experimentally whether behavioral and endocrine anti-predator responses changed in response to predator introduction. We hypothesized that flight initiation distances (FID) and corticosterone (CORT) concentrations should increase in affected populations to cope with the novel predators. Populations of marine iguanas reacted differentially to simulated predator approach depending on whether or not they were previously naturally exposed to introduced predators. FIDs were larger at sites with predation than at sites without predation. Furthermore, the occurrence of new predators was associated with increased stress-induced CORT levels in marine iguanas. In addition, age was a strong predictor of variation in FID and CORT levels. Juveniles, which are generally more threatened by predators compared to adults, showed larger FIDs and higher CORT baseline levels as well as higher stress-induced levels than adults. The results demonstrate that this naive island species shows behavioral and physiological plasticity associated with actual predation pressure, a trait that is presumably adaptive. However, the adjustments in FID are not sufficient to cope with the novel predators. We suggest that low behavioral plasticity in the face of introduced predators may drive many island species to extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Berger
- Institute of Experimental Ecology, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89069 Ulm, Germany.
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41
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Germano DJ, Williams DF. ONTOGENETIC AND SEASONAL CHANGES IN COLORATION OF THE BLUNT-NOSED LEOPARD LIZARD (GAMBELIA SILA). SOUTHWEST NAT 2007. [DOI: 10.1894/0038-4909(2007)52[46:oascic]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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42
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Cooper, Jr. W. Compensatory changes in escape and refuge use following autotomy in the lizard Sceloporus virgatus. CAN J ZOOL 2007. [DOI: 10.1139/z06-200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Following autotomy of a body part to escape from a predator, prey may alter antipredatory strategies to compensate for the inability to use autotomy and impaired escape ability. Because prey that have been captured may increase their assessment of risk posed by a predator, effects of capture may have been attributed to autotomy. I conducted an experiment using three groups of striped plateau lizards ( Sceloporus virgatus Smith, 1938): control, captured, and autotomized. Captured and autotomized lizards were less active on the day after autotomy than controls. Flight initiation distance and distance fled were greater in both experimental groups than in the control group, but did not differ between experimental groups. Flight initiation distance was greater in autotomized than in captured lizards only in males. No sex difference occurred for distance fled. Autotomized lizards entered refuges more than other groups. Escape strategy changed after autotomy to increased reliance on refuge and, in males, to increased flight initiation distance; behaviours that are appropriate to compensate for impaired escape ability. Decreased activity and increased distance fled might erroneously have been considered effects of autotomy, had effects of capture not been assessed. Predictions of escape theory that flight initiation distance and distance fled increase with predation risk were supported.
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Affiliation(s)
- W.E. Cooper, Jr.
- Department of Biology, Indiana University – Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805-1499, USA (e-mail: )
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43
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Kuriyama T, Miyaji K, Sugimoto M, Hasegawa M. Ultrastructure of the dermal chromatophores in a lizard (Scincidae: Plestiodon latiscutatus) with conspicuous body and tail coloration. Zoolog Sci 2006; 23:793-9. [PMID: 17043401 DOI: 10.2108/zsj.23.793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Microscopic observation of the skin of Plestiodon lizards, which have body stripes and blue tail coloration, identified epidermal melanophores and three types of dermal chromatophores: xanthophores, iridophores, and melanophores. There was a vertical combination of these pigment cells, with xanthophores in the uppermost layer, iridophores in the intermediate layer, and melanophores in the basal layer, which varied according to the skin coloration. Skin with yellowish-white or brown coloration had an identical vertical order of xanthophores, iridophores, and melanophores, but yellowish-white skin had a thicker layer of iridophores and a thinner layer of melanophores than did brown skin. The thickness of the iridophore layer was proportional to the number of reflecting platelets within each iridophore. Skin showing green coloration also had three layers of dermal chromatophores, but the vertical order of xanthophores and iridophores was frequently reversed. Skin showing blue color had iridophores above the melanophores. In addition, the thickness of reflecting platelets in the blue tail was less than in yellowish-white or brown areas of the body. Skin with black coloration had only melanophores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeo Kuriyama
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan.
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44
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Hawlena D, Boochnik R, Abramsky Z, Bouskila A. Blue tail and striped body: why do lizards change their infant costume when growing up? Behav Ecol 2006. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arl023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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45
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Inter-populational variation in the cost of autotomy in the metallic skink (Niveoscincus metallicus). J Zool (1987) 2004. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952836904005941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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46
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47
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Ease and effectiveness of costly autotomy vary with predation intensity among lizard populations. J Zool (1987) 2004. [DOI: 10.1017/s095283690300462x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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48
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Roth ED, Johnson JA. Size-based variation in antipredator behavior within a snake (Agkistrodon piscivorus) population. Behav Ecol 2004. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arh024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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49
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To run or hide? Age-dependent escape behaviour in the common flat lizard (Platysaurus intermedius wilhelmi). J Zool (1987) 2003. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952836903003455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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50
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Cooper WE. Multiple Roles of Tail Display by the Curly-Tailed Lizard Leiocephalus carinatus: Pursuit Deterrent and Deflective Roles of a Social Signal. Ethology 2001. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1439-0310.2001.00754.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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