Sites of Persistence of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus in the Genital Tract of Experimentally Infected Bulls

Molecular characterization of lumpy skin disease virus from recent outbreaks in Pakistan

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a contagious viral transboundary disease listed as a notifiable disease by the World Organization of Animal Health (WOAH). The first case of this disease was reported in Pakistan in late 2021. Since then, numerous outbreaks have been documented in various regions and provinces across the country. The current study primarily aimed to analyze samples collected during LSD outbreaks in cattle populations in the Sindh and Punjab provinces of Pakistan. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using partial sequences of the GPCR, p32, and RP030 genes. Collectively, the LSDV strains originating from outbreaks in Pakistan exhibited a noticeable clustering pattern with LSDV strains reported in African, Middle Eastern, and Asian countries, including Egypt, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, India, China, and Thailand. The precise reasons behind the origin of the virus strain and its subsequent spread to Pakistan remain unknown. This underscores the need for further investigations into outbreaks across the country. The findings of the current study can contribute to the establishment of effective disease control strategies, including the implementation of a mass vaccination campaign in disease-endemic countries such as Pakistan.

A quantitative risk assessment for the incursion of lumpy skin disease virus into Australia via long-distance windborne dispersal of arthropod vectors

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an infectious disease of cattle and water buffalo caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). It is primarily transmitted mechanically by biting insects. LSDV has spread from Africa to the Middle-East, the Balkans, Caucasus, Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Asia and India, suggesting that a wide variety of arthropod vectors are capable of mechanical transmission. In 2022, LSD was detected in Indonesia, heightening awareness for Australia's livestock industries. To better understand the risk of LSDV incursion to Australia we undertook a quantitative risk assessment (QRA) looking at windborne dispersal of arthropod vectors, assuming a hypothetical situation where LSD is endemic in south-east Asia and Papua New Guinea. We estimated the risk of LSDV incursion to be low, with a median incursion rate of one incursion every 403 years, based on a model where several infectious insects (i.e. a 'small batch' of 3-5) must bite a single bovine to transmit infection. The incursion risk increases substantially to one incursion every 7-8 years if a bite from a single insect is sufficient for transmission. The risk becomes negligible (one incursion every 20,706 years) if bites from many insects (i.e. a 'large batch' of 30-50 insects) are necessary. Critically, several of our parameter estimates were highly uncertain during sensitivity analyses. Thus, a key outcome of this QRA was to better prioritise surveillance activities and to understand the key research gaps associated with LSDV in the Australasian context. The current literature shows that multiple vectors are required for successful bovine-to-vector transmission of LSDV, suggesting that our estimate of one outbreak every 403 years more accurately represents the risk to Australia; however, the role of single insects in transmission has not yet been evaluated. Similarly, attempts to transmit LSDV between bovines by Culicoides have not been successful, although midges were the highest risk vector category in our model due to the high vector-to-host ratio for midges compared to other vector categories. Our findings provide further insight into the risk of LSD to Australian cattle industries and identify the Tiwi Islands and areas east of Darwin as priority regions for LSDV surveillance, especially between December and March.

Lumpy Skin Disease: A Systematic Review of Mode of Transmission, Risk of Emergence and Risk Entry Pathway

The spread of lumpy skin disease (LSD) to free countries over the last 10 years, particularly countries in Europe, Central and South East Asia, has highlighted the threat of emergence in new areas or re-emergence in countries that achieved eradication. This review aimed to identify studies on LSD epidemiology. A focus was made on hosts, modes of transmission and spread, risks of outbreaks and emergence in new areas. In order to summarize the research progress regarding the epidemiological characteristics of LSD virus over the last 40 years, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses statement guidelines were followed, via two databases, i.e., PubMed (biomedical literature) and Scopus (peer-reviewed literature including scientific journals, books, and conference proceedings). A total of 86 scientific articles were considered and classified according to the type of epidemiological study, i.e., experimental versus observational. The main findings and limitations of the retrieved articles were summarized: buffaloes are the main non-cattle hosts, the main transmission mode is mechanical, i.e., via blood-sucking vectors, and stable flies are the most competent vectors. Vectors are mainly responsible for a short-distance spread, while cattle trade spread the virus over long distances. Furthermore, vaccine-recombinant strains have emerged. In conclusion, controlling animal trade and insects in animal transport trucks are the most appropriate measures to limit or prevent LSD (re)emergence.

Understanding the research advances on lumpy skin disease: A comprehensive literature review of experimental evidence

Lumpy skin disease is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), which can induce cattle with high fever and extensive nodules on the mucosa or the scarfskin, seriously influencing the cattle industry development and international import and export trade. Since 2013, the disease has spread rapidly and widely throughout the Russia and Asia. In the past few decades, progress has been made in the study of LSDV. It is mainly transmitted by blood-sucking insects, and various modes of transmission with distinct seasonality. Figuring out how the virus spreads will help eradicate LSDV at its source. In the event of an outbreak, selecting the most effective vaccine to block and eliminate the threat posed by LSDV in a timely manner is the main choice for farmers and authorities. At present, a variety of vaccines for LSDV have been developed. The available vaccine products vary in quality, protection rate, safety and side effects. Early detection of LSDV can help reduce the cost of disease. In addition, because LSDV has a huge genome, it is currently also used as a vaccine carrier, forming a new complex with other viral genes through homologous recombination. The vaccine prepared based on this can have a certain preventive effect on many kinds of diseases. Clinical detection of disease including nucleic acid and antigen level. Each method varies in convenience, accuracy, cost, time and complexity of equipment. This article reviews our current understanding of the mode of transmission of LSDV and advances in vaccine types and detection methods, providing a background for further research into various aspects of LSDV in the future.

Experimental infection of indigenous North African goats with goatpox virus

Background

Goatpox is a viral disease caused by infection with goatpox virus (GTPV) of the genus Capripoxvirus, Poxviridae family. Capripoxviruses cause serious disease to livestock and contribute to huge economic losses. Goatpox and sheeppox are endemic to Africa, particularly north of the Equator, the Middle East and many parts of Asia. GTPV and sheeppox virus are considered host-specific; however, both strains can cause clinical disease in either goats or sheep with more severe disease in the homologous species and mild or sub-clinical infection in the other. Goatpox has never been reported in Morocco, Algeria or Tunisia despite the huge population of goats living in proximity with sheep in those countries. To evaluate the susceptibility and pathogenicity of indigenous North African goats to GTPV infection, we experimentally inoculated eight locally bred goats with a virulent Vietnamese isolate of GTPV. Two uninfected goats were kept as controls. Clinical examination was carried out daily and blood was sampled for virology and for investigating the antibody response. After necropsy, tissues were collected and assessed for viral DNA using real-time PCR.

Results

Following the experimental infection, all inoculated goats displayed clinical signs characteristic of goatpox including varying degrees of hyperthermia, loss of appetite, inactivity and cutaneous lesions. The infection severely affected three of the infected animals while moderate to mild disease was noticed in the remaining goats. A high antibody response was developed. High viral DNA loads were detected in skin crusts and nodules, and subcutaneous tissue at the injection site with cycle threshold (Ct) values ranging from 14.6 to 22.9, while lower viral loads were found in liver and lung (Ct = 35.7 and 35.1). The results confirmed subcutaneous tropism of the virus.

Conclusion

Clinical signs of goatpox were reproduced in indigenous North African goats and confirmed a high susceptibility of the North African goat breed to GTPV infection. A clinical scoring system is proposed that can be applied in GTPV vaccine efficacy studies.

Lumpy skin disease, an emerging transboundary viral disease: A review

Lumpy skin disease is an emerging bovine viral disease, which is endemic in most African countries and some Middle East ones, and the elevated risk of the spread of disease into the rest of Asia and Europe should be considered. The recent rapid spread of disease in currently disease-free countries indicates the importance of understanding the limitations and routes of distribution. The causative agent, Capripoxvirus, can also induce sheeppox and goatpox. The economic significance of these diseases is of great concern, given that they threaten international trade and could be used as economic bioterrorism agents. The distribution of capripoxviruses seems to be expanding due to limited access to effective vaccines and poverty within farming communities. This is largely due to the economic effects of the Covid-19 pandemic and the imposition of crippling sanctions in endemic regions, as well as an increase in the legal and illegal trade of live animals and animal products, and also global climate change. The present review is designed to provide existing information on the various aspects of the disease such as its clinicopathology, transmission, epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention and control measures, and the potential role of wildlife in the further spread of disease.

Experimental evaluation of the cross-protection between Sheeppox and bovine Lumpy skin vaccines

The Capripoxvirus genus includes three agents: Sheeppox virus, Goatpox virus and Lumpy skin disease virus. Related diseases are of economic importance and present a major constraint to animals and animal products trade in addition to mortality and morbidity. Attenuated vaccines against these diseases are available, but afforded cross-protection is controversial in each specie. In this study, groups of sheep, goats and cattle were vaccinated with Romania SPPV vaccine and challenged with corresponding virulent strains. Sheep and cattle were also vaccinated with Neethling LSDV vaccine and challenged with both virulent SPPV and LSDV strains. Animals were monitored by clinical observation, rectal temperature as well as serological response. The study showed that sheep and goats vaccinated with Romania SPPV vaccine were fully protected against challenge with virulent SPPV and GTPV strains, respectively. However, small ruminants vaccinated with LSDV Neethling vaccine showed only partial protection against challenge with virulent SPPV strain. Cattle showed also only partial protection when vaccinated with Romania SPPV and were fully protected with Neethling LSDV vaccine. This study showed that SPPV and GTPV vaccines are closely related with cross-protection, while LSDV protects only cattle against the corresponding disease, which suggests that vaccination against LSDV should be carried out with homologous strain.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) outbreaks in cattle in Odisha state, India in August 2019: Epidemiological features and molecular studies

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) inflicts significant economic losses in cattle production with impact on livelihoods of smallholders. This study reports the first occurrence of LSD in cattle in India and analyses epidemiological and genetic characterization data from LSD outbreaks in five districts of Odisha state in August 2019. In all, 182 of 2,539 cattle were affected with an apparent morbidity rate of 7.1% and no mortality. Out of 102 samples from 60 LSD suspected and 17 asymptomatic in-contact cattle tested, 29.87% cattle were positive by capripoxvirus generic PCR and 37.66% were positive by LSDV real-time PCR. All the in-contact cattle tested were negative for LSDV. Among affected cattle, LSDV genome was detected more in scabs (79.16%) than blood (31.81%) and frozen bull semen (20.45%). Differential diagnosis by PCR was negative for pseudo-LSD, buffalopox, cowpox, pseudo-cowpox and bovine papular stomatitis. Five selected PCR and real-time PCR-positive LSDV DNA were sequenced in three genomic regions, P32 (LSDV074), F (LSDV117) and RPO30 (LSDV036). Phylogenetic analysis based on partial P32 and F gene sequences and complete RPO30 gene sequences showed that all the five Indian LSDV strains were identical and clustered with other field strains of LSDV circulating globally. However, the F and RPO30 gene sequence analyses revealed that Indian LSDV strains are genetically closer to the South African NI2490/KSGP-like strains than the strains detected in Europe, which was rather surprising. The present study established the existence of LSDV in India and involvement of LSDV field strains in the outbreaks. Additionally, we provided evidence of LSDV shedding in semen of naturally infected bulls. Further studies are required to determine the source of LSD introduction, extent of spread, modes of transmission and impact on dairy cattle production in India and effective control measures must be undertaken urgently.

Goatpox virus (G20-LKV) vaccine strain elicits a protective response in cattle against lumpy skin disease at challenge with lumpy skin disease virulent field strain in a comparative study

In this comparative study, we examine the safety of the sheeppox (SPP) and goatpox (GTP) vaccines and the protective response of these vaccines in cattle against a virulent lumpy skin disease (LSD) field strain. The vaccine safety was tested in rabbits, mice and cattle using ten times recommended dose. In the safety trial, none of the vaccinated animals showed any deviation from physiological norms or fever, inappetence or local/ generalized skin reactions. In the challenge trial, both SPP and GTP vaccine groups developed virus-neutralizing antibodies with an average titre of 2.1 log₂ at 21 days post-vaccination. No significant difference in seroconversion was found in cattle vaccinated with SPP and GTP vaccines (P ≥ 0.05). When challenged with a virulent LSD field strain, one animal vaccinated with the SPP Niskhi vaccine strain showed typical LSD skin lesions at the injection sites of different dilutions of the challenge virus. All animals vaccinated with GTP G20-LKV vaccine strain showed full protection. After infection with the challenge virus, unvaccinated fully susceptible control cattle showed characteristic clinical signs of LSD. The average protective index for SPP and GTP vaccine groups was 5.3 ± 1.42 and 5.9 ± 0.00, respectively.

Emergence of a new lumpy skin disease virus variant in Kurgan Oblast, Russia, in 2018

In this paper, we report the resurgence of lumpy skin disease (LSD) in Kurgan Oblast, Russia, in 2018. The majority of the outbreaks were silent with no mortality and congregated within an area with a radius of about 30 km located 1-50 km away from the national border with Kazakhstan. Following primary molecular diagnosis, LSD virus (LSDV) isolates were analyzed using a panel of PCR assays targeting different genetic loci, namely, LSD008 (vaccine), LSDV126 (field), and GPCR (vaccine and field), for differentiation and genotype assignment. All isolates were positive for the vaccine genotype of GPCR and negative for the other field targets tested. A PCR assay with melt curve analysis utilizing LSD008, developed in this work, indicated that the strains melted with a profile similar to those of field strains. Surprisingly, sequence analysis of the RPO30 and GPCR genes aligned the Kurgan/2018 isolate with KSGP O-240 at the GPCR locus, but with Saratov/2017 at the RPO30 locus. The latter cluster forms an association with a sub-cluster of the field strains comprising the South African KSGP O-240 strain and NI-2490 strain. Due to these incongruent phylogenetic patterns, the sequences of three additional loci ORF19 (Kelch-like protein), ORF52 (putative transcriptional elongation factor), and ORF87 (mutT motif protein) were investigated. Phylogenetic analysis of these additional loci placed the strain Kurgan/2018 in either vaccine or field groups, strongly suggesting a novel recombinant profile. This is another piece of evidence exposing the potential for recombination in capripoxviruses and the ignored danger of using live homologous vaccines against LSD. The necessity to revise the PCR-based strategy differentiating infected from vaccinated animals is discussed. The potential scenarios of incursion and the contribution of the KSGP/NI-2490-like strain to the emergence of the recently identified vaccine-like recombinant are discussed.

From Ancient to Emerging Infections: The Odyssey of Viruses in the Male Genital Tract

The male genital tract (MGT) is the target of a number of viral infections that can have deleterious consequences at the individual, offspring, and population levels. These consequences include infertility, cancers of male organs, transmission to the embryo/fetal development abnormalities, and sexual dissemination of major viral pathogens such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus. Lately, two emerging viruses, Zika and Ebola, have additionally revealed that the human MGT can constitute a reservoir for viruses cleared from peripheral circulation by the immune system, leading to their sexual transmission by cured men. This represents a concern for future epidemics and further underlines the need for a better understanding of the interplay between viruses and the MGT. We review here how viruses, from ancient viruses that integrated the germline during evolution through old viruses (e.g., papillomaviruses originating from Neanderthals) and more modern sexually transmitted infections (e.g., simian zoonotic HIV) to emerging viruses (e.g., Ebola and Zika) take advantage of genital tract colonization for horizontal dissemination, viral persistence, vertical transmission, and endogenization. The MGT immune responses to viruses and the impact of these infections are discussed. We summarize the latest data regarding the sources of viruses in semen and the complex role of this body fluid in sexual transmission. Finally, we introduce key animal findings that are relevant for our understanding of viral infection and persistence in the human MGT and suggest future research directions.

Effect of using frozen-thawed bovine semen contaminated with lumpy skin disease virus on in vitro embryo production

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an important transboundary animal disease of cattle with significant economic impact because of the implications for international trade in live animals and animal products. LSD is caused by a Capripoxvirus, LSD virus (LSDV), and results in extensive hide and udder damage, fever and pneumonia. LSDV can be shed in semen of infected bulls for prolonged periods and transmitted venereally to cows at high doses. This study examined the effects of LSDV in frozen-thawed semen on in vitro embryo production parameters, including viral status of media and resulting embryos. Bovine oocytes were harvested from abattoir-collected ovaries and split into three experimental groups. After maturation, the oocytes were fertilized in vitro with frozen-thawed semen spiked with a high (HD) or a lower (LD) dose of LSDV, or with LSDV-free semen (control). Following day 7 and day 8 blastocyst evaluation, PCR and virus isolation were performed on all embryonic structures. After completing sufficient replicates to reach 1,000 inseminated oocytes, further in vitro fertilization (IVF) runs were performed to provide material for electron microscopy (EM) and embryo washing procedures. Overall, in vitro embryo yield was significantly reduced by the presence of LSDV in frozen-thawed semen, irrespective of viral dose. When semen with a lower viral dose was used, significantly lower oocyte cleavage rates were observed. LSDV could be detected in fertilization media and all embryo structures, when higher doses of LSDV were present in the frozen-thawed semen used for IVF. Electron microscopy demonstrated LSDV virions inside blastocysts. Following the International Embryo Transfer Society washing procedure resulted in embryos free of viral DNA; however, this may be attributable to a sampling dilution effect and should be interpreted with caution. Further research is required to better quantify the risk of LSDV transmission via assisted reproductive procedures.

Determination of lumpy skin disease virus in bovine meat and offal products following experimental infection

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) has recently expanded its range northwards to include the Balkans, Turkey and Russia. Because there was no solid evidence conclusively verifying the transmission mechanism in the field and LSDV viraemic animals with overt and asymptomatic presentation of disease and their products may represent a risk as an indirect transmission pathway. In this work, we used PCR positivity and infectivity in clinical and subclinical infection to evaluate the safety of meat and offal products from cows infected with the virulent LSDV strain Russia/Dagestan/2015. At day 21 post infection, seven of the 12 animals developed the generalized disease, and four animals became subclinically infected without apparent clinical signs. Upon examination and necropsy, the animals with the generalized disease had skin lesions; noticeably enlarged lymph nodes; and lesions in the lungs, trachea and testicles; whereas subclinically ill animals exhibited only enlarged lymph nodes and fever. For both disease presentations, testing of skeletal meat by PCR and virus isolation showed that the skeletal meat did not contain live virus or viral genome, whereas in cattle with generalized disease, meat with gross pathology physically connected under the site of a skin lesion was positive for the live virus. In subclinical infection, only enlarged lymph nodes carried the infectious virus, while the other internal organs tested in both types of disease manifestation were negative except for the testicles. Overall, our findings demonstrate that clinically and subclinically infected animals are reservoirs of live LSDV in lymph nodes and testicles, whereas deep skeletal meat in both types of infection do not carry live virus and the risk of transmission through this product seems very low. The detection of LSDV in testicular tissues in subclinically ill animals is concerning because of the potential to spread infection through contaminated semen. This aspect requires reconsideration of surveillance programmes to identify these Trojan horses of LSDV infection.

Spatial analysis of lumpy skin disease in Eurasia-Predicting areas at risk for further spread within the region

Data from affected lumpy skin disease (LSD) locations between July 2012 and September 2018 in the Balkans, Caucasus, and Middle East were retrieved from FAO's Global Animal Disease Information System (EMPRES-i) from the European Commission's Animal Disease Notification System (ADNS) and completed with data from the official veterinary services of some countries. During this period, a total of 7,593 locations from 22 countries were affected. Within this period, over 46,000 cattle were clinically affected by LSD, 3,700 animals died and 17,500 were slaughtered due to culling policies to stop the spread of the disease. Most outbreaks occurred in 2016, between the months of May and November. The affected region was divided into a grid of 10 × 10 km cells and we fit a spatial regression model to analyse the association between the reported LSD outbreaks and climatic variables, land cover, and cattle density. The results showed big differences in the odds of being LSD positive due to the type of land cover: the odds of a cell being LSD positive was increased in areas mostly covered with croplands, grassland, or shrubland. The odds was also increased for higher cattle density, as well as areas with higher annual mean temperature and higher temperature diurnal range. The resulting model was utilized to predict the LSD risk in neighbouring unaffected areas in Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, identifying several areas with high risk of spread. Results from this study provide useful information for the design of surveillance and awareness systems, and preventive measures, e.g., vaccination programmes.

Review: Risks of disease transmission through semen in cattle

The purpose of this paper is to review scientific evidence concerning pathogens that could potentially be transmitted via bovine semen. As a result of a careful analysis of the characteristics of infections that may cause transmission of disease through semen, effective control procedures can be identified that provide minimal constraint to the introduction of new bulls into herds for natural breeding and importation of valuable novel genetics through artificial insemination. The potential for transmission through bovine semen and corresponding effective control procedures are described for bovine herpesvirus 1, bovine viral diarrhea virus, bovine leukemia virus, lumpy skin disease virus, bluetongue virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus, and Schmallenberg virus. Brief consideration is also provided regarding the potential for transmission via semen of Tritrichomonas foetus, Campylobacter fetus venerealis, Brucella abortus, Leptospira spp., Histophilus somni, Ureaplasma diversum, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Chlamydiaceae, Mycobacterium bovis, Coxiella burnetii, Mycoplasma mycoides ssp. mycoides and Neospora caninum. Thoughtful and systematic control procedures can ensure the safety of introducing new bulls and cryopreserved semen into cattle production systems.

Detection of lumpy skin disease virus in skin lesions, blood, nasal swabs and milk following preventive vaccination

Lumpy skin disease caused by Capripoxvirus is at the moment the most important threat to European cattle industry. The only way for successful control of disease is fast and efficient diagnosis and vaccination. According to EU legislation, vaccination against LDS can be conducted only after confirmation of the disease. Croatia has a special position regarding LSD-in 2016, for the first-time vaccination of the entire cattle population was conducted without an index case. The presence of vaccine viral particles was detected in milk, skin nodules, blood and nasal swabs in seven from total of eight herds. The presence of virus genome was detected in five cows from 10 up to 21-day post-vaccination. The virus was successfully isolated on cell culture from 10 up to 21-day post-vaccination from three animals. The obtained results support the need for further efforts to develop safer vaccines against LSDV.

Review: Capripoxvirus Diseases: Current Status and Opportunities for Control

Lumpy skin disease, sheeppox and goatpox are high-impact diseases of domestic ruminants with a devastating effect on cattle, sheep and goat farming industries in endemic regions. In this article, we review the current geographical distribution, economic impact of an outbreak, epidemiology, transmission and immunity of capripoxvirus. The special focus of the article is to scrutinize the use of currently available vaccines to investigate the resource needs and challenges that will have to be overcome to improve disease control and eradication, and progress on the development of safer and more effective vaccines. In addition, field evaluation of the efficacy of the vaccines and the genomic database available for poxviruses are discussed.

Evaluation of the safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of three capripoxvirus vaccine strains against lumpy skin disease virus

The safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of three commercially available vaccines against lumpy skin disease (LSD) in cattle have been evaluated using a combination of vaccine challenge experiments and the monitoring of immune responses in vaccinated animals in the field. The three vaccines evaluated in the study included two locally produced (Ethiopian) vaccines (lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) Neethling and Kenyan sheep and goat pox (KSGP) O-180 strain vaccines) and a Gorgan goat pox (GTP) vaccine manufactured by Jordan Bio-Industries Centre (JOVAC). The latter vaccine was evaluated for the first time in cattle against LSDV. The Ethiopian Neethling and KSGPO-180 vaccines failed to provide protection in cattle against LSDV, whereas the Gorgan GTP vaccine protected all the vaccinated calves from clinical signs of LSD. There was no significant difference in protective efficacy detected between two dosage levels (P=0.2, P=0.25, and P=0.1 for KSGP, Neethling and Gorgan vaccines, respectively). Additionally, the Gorgan GTP vaccinated cattle showed stronger levels of cellular immune responses measured using Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions at the vaccination site indicating higher levels of immunogenicity produced by the GTPV vaccine in cattle, as opposed to the other two vaccines. This study indicated, for the first time, that the Gorgan GTP vaccine can effectively protect cattle against LSDV and that the Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccine were not protective. The results emphasise the need for molecular characterization of the Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccine seed viruses used for vaccine production in Ethiopia. In addition, the potency and efficacy testing process of the Ethiopian LSD Neethling and KSGP O-180 vaccines should be re-evaluated.

Lumpy Skin Disease in Iraq: Study of the Disease Emergence

This study intends to report the first emergence of lumpy skin disease (LSD) in Iraq, in addition to describing its related clinical signs. In August 2013, 21 cases of four outbreaks developed clinical signs suggestive of LSD in the Nineveh (Mosul) and Baghdad Governorates, which were considered as the first infected foci of LSD in Iraq. The disease was diagnosed tentatively, on the basis of clinical signs and epidemiological features, and it was confirmed as positive by the polymerase chain reaction and histopathological features. In September 2013, eight new outbreaks of LSD also appeared in Baghdad and Nineveh. In 2014, the disease spread rapidly to the governorates of Kirkuk, Salah Al-Din, Al-Anbar, Diyala, Wasit, Babil, Karbala, Najaf, Al-Diwaniyah, Muthanna, Maysan, DhiQar and Basra. The total number of infected cows and calves reported was 7396 and 227, respectively. The apparent morbidity and mortality rates were 9.11% and 0.51%, respectively, while the apparent case-fatality rate was 5.56%. Skin nodules, anorexia, reduce in milk production and decrease in bodyweight were the common clinical signs. Moreover, myiasis and mastitis were seen as complications in some infected animals. Attempts were made to stop the distribution of the disease including quarantine and treatment, control over animal movement and arthropod control. Ring vaccination was used in a 10 km radius zone around the outbreak with live sheep pox vaccine. The highly contagious transboundary nature of the LSD, its endemic distribution in the Iraqi neighbouring countries, and the current armed conflict in the area were the possible factors for the disease being introduced into the country. LSD had spread through the Middle East and Gulf peninsula and could be a cause of danger to the rest of Asia and Europe. International precaution, cooperation and exchange of information could guarantee the prevention and further spread of the disease to the rest of Asia and Europe.

Review: lumpy skin disease: an emerging threat to Europe, the Middle East and Asia

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an economically devastating emerging viral disease of cattle. Lumpy skin disease is currently endemic in most African countries and has recently spread out of Africa into the Middle East region. In this article, we review the putative mechanisms of spread of LSD into the Middle East and the risks of further spread into Turkey, Europe and Asia. We also review the latest findings on the epidemiology of LSD, its mechanisms of transmission, the potential role of wildlife in its maintenance and spread and the diagnostic tests and control methods currently available.

Detection of lumpy skin disease virus antigen and genomic DNA in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues from an Egyptian outbreak in 2006

An outbreak of lumpy skin disease (LSD) was reported in 2006 in Egypt affecting 16 provinces. Biopsies and post-mortem tissue samples were collected from calves that showed typical clinical signs of LSD and fixed in formalin. These samples were collected from a private dairy farm in the Damietta province of Egypt. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples were assessed using histology, and skin lesions were classified as either acute or subacute/chronic. Both lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) DNA detected by polymerase chain reaction and LSDV antigen detected by immunohistochemistry using a capripoxvirus-specific monoclonal antibody were observed in the acute skin lesions and in some subacute/chronic skin lesions.